The Dramaturgy of Senecan Tragedy

by Thomas; Kohn

  Conclusions

  The most obvious influences for Seneca were the two Hippolytus plays by Euripides, both the extant Hippolytus Stephanophoros (ca. 428 BCE), and the earlier Hippolytus Kalyptomenos,42 which remains only in fragments. There is also a fragmentary play by Sophocles, thought to have been composed between the two versions by Euripides. Lycophron, in the fourth century BCE, wrote a dramatic version of the story. We know of no Roman plays other than Seneca's, although Ovid deals with the myth in Heroides 4.

  Seneca follows the basic structure of Euripides’ later, extant drama, with some notable omissions. The Roman play has no prologue by the goddess of love, but instead jumps right to Hippolytus as he prepares for the hunt. Then Phaedra and her Nurse discuss the situation and what should be done. The Nurse confronts Hippolytus, who subsequently flees. Theseus returns to learn Phaedra's version of the events. He responds by praying for the death of Hippolytus. Following a Messenger's news that the young man has died as a result of a sea monster, Theseus discovers the truth, and laments. Besides this structure, Seneca retains the motif of the three wishes that Neptune promised to Theseus, an element that Euripides may have invented.43 But Seneca has also left out or changed a number of events: there are no bookend appearances by the goddesses of love and hunting; no Old Retainer advises Hippolytus to change his ways; Phaedra does not kill herself offstage before Theseus’ return, but survives until the end, when she commits suicide in full view of the audience; and there is no confrontation between Theseus and Hippolytus. Perhaps most importantly, Seneca's Phaedra has given in to her lust for her stepson. The Nurse, instead of urging her mistress to succumb and then telling Hippolytus against her wishes, first tries to dissuade the queen before submitting to Phaedra's desires. And instead of killing herself and leaving an incriminating note, the Roman Phaedra confesses her lies to her husband in person. We are told that Euripides’ earlier play portrayed a similarly shameful Phaedra, and that the tragedy received public condemnation.44 Some scholars have thought, since the characters of Phaedra are similar, that Seneca was more influenced by the first Euripides play than by the second.45 But this is a difficult proposition to prove, since we have only fragments and descriptions of Hippolytus Kalyptomenos. The safest thing to say is that Seneca seems to have followed the traditions of both Greek dramas and combined them in his play.

  There are a number of interesting staging issues in this play. To start, there is the question of the first act. It is peculiar that it can be divided into two distinct parts, and that the first section is sung by Hippolytus in anapests. As this is the meter that Seneca often uses for the choral parodos, I suggested above that the Chorus may actually enter here, and consist of Hippolytus’ companions. If this is the case, no longer is the first act bifurcated, nor is the entrance song missing. It further explains who the Chorus is, and why it is sympathetic to Hippolytus and hostile, or at least indifferent, to Phaedra. And it sets the precedent for the Chorus being such an active participant in this play. It speaks within an episode twice; and at the end of every ode, the Chorus speaks in trimeter to announce another character's entrance or ask a question. In general, the Chorus of the Phaedra seems to be much more integrated into the action of this play than in any other in the Senecan corpus. And this integration starts from the very beginning, as Hippolytus initially introduces its members as mute actors.

  This may also be an indication of Hippolytus’ true transgression. In the extant Euripidean version, it is made clear that the youth has offended Aphrodite by not worshipping her. At a deeper level, Hippolytus has violated the laws of nature and society. Artemis watched over and protected the young of every species. But there was an expectation that at the proper time, one would move on to the sexuality that Aphrodite embodied. Hippolytus refuses to do this, and so his entire family structure is subverted, and everybody suffers.46 But in the Roman play, the goddess of love does not announce the difficulty. Instead, Seneca has Hippolytus assume a role that is not rightfully his. A speaking character should not sing the choral parodos, but he does. So in this metadramatical way, our playwright indicates that the young man is not behaving in a manner acceptable to society.

  It is also interesting to note that this play requires a great deal of stage machinery. At least once, Phaedra appears in a window in the second level of the scaenae frons.47 An exostra is necessary for Phaedra's entrance in act 3. And there are quite a few offstage sound cues. Perhaps this reflects the machinations and scheming that Phaedra and the Nurse go through throughout the play.

  Finally, the role distribution in the play deserves comment. The actor assigned to Phaedra has no other parts. The Nurse and the Messenger are portrayed by the same actor, meaning that he plays all of the servants and intermediaries. Further, that actor does not return after the account of the death of Hippolytus; clearly, after that, no further help is necessary. And the remaining actor plays Hippolytus and Theseus, son and father, victim and murderer. In a dramaturgical sense, Theseus truly deprives Hippolytus of life, because when the one character is onstage, there is not an actor available to portray the other.48 This also explains, at least from a staging perspective, why Theseus does not confront his son as he does in Euripides’ play. He cannot, unless the actor looks at himself in the mirror. The result is that Seneca's Theseus seems much more tragic than Euripides'. The Latin hero readily believes Phaedra and leaps to punish his son. This makes his grief much worse when he eventually learns the truth.

  CHAPTER 5

  Medea

  Two mute actors are required to portray the sons of Jason and Medea at the end of act 4 and all of act 5.

  Medea and her Nurse are present for all five acts,1 and so one actor must be assigned to play each of these roles exclusively. The third actor gets the remaining characters: Creon, Jason, and the Messenger. It is significant that all are men, and that all are to a greater or lesser degree hostile to Medea.

  The Chorus does not identify itself, but its first song is a wedding hymn or epithalamium, celebrating the beauty of Creusa. Thus it clearly consists of people, presumably Corinthians, who approve of the marriage between their princess and Jason. This is supported by the ensuing songs that paint Medea and her achievements in a negative light. The initial epithalamium mentions the bride standing among a female chorus (haec cum femineo constitit in choro, unius facies praenitet omnibus, 93–94), which could possibly mean this Chorus is made up of Corinthian women.2 Others argue that the first song follows the examples of Catullus 61 and 62, and so the Chorus splits into two separate groups of men and women.3 But the only certainty is that, throughout the play, the Chorus is hostile to Medea and friendly to Jason. In fact, Davis (1993), 27–28, has the Chorus absent for all the acts, except for the beginning of act 5, when it interacts with the Messenger; he reasons that it is so inimical to Medea that it would not stand idly by as she plots against Jason and Creusa. Certainly Seneca is not averse to having the Chorus leave the stage in the middle of the play. But in all other cases where this occurs (e.g., act 3 of the Agamemnon), there is a good, dramatic reason for it to exit and then reenter. This is not the case in this play. Nothing can justify a Chorus that simply comes on in order to sing, and then immediately leaves. It makes more sense for it to remain once it enters, serving as a silent reminder of the danger Medea faces. The fact that it does not overhear her plans is more a problem for those who demand excessive realism.4

  In this play, the center doors represent, not a palace as they do so often in Senecan tragedy, but Medea's house. This is not quite the same thing as a royal residence, but similar, since it is the home of the main character. And since the center doors open into Medea's home, one wing must lead to the palace, while the other leads out of town. Sutton maintains that this play “requires a two-building set,” with one building representing the palace, while the other stands for Medea's dwelling.5 The necessity for the representation of the palace is based on Medea's announcement that the gates make a noise (sed cuius ictu regius cardo str
epit, 177) when Creon enters. But there is no reason that such gates must be onstage. Instead, I think this is more likely an offstage sound cue. The “real” doors to the palace would presumably be massive, and one could hear them open all over town.

  There is also an opening in the scaenae frons above the center doors, and some kind of platform or balcony, accessible from backstage, for Medea to stand on in act 5.6 The access to this platform must either be a ladder or staircase onstage that Medea climbs in full view of the audience, while leading one son and carrying the corpse of the other, or else there is an offstage staircase.7 The presence of an onstage ladder would tip off the audience from the very start that eventually someone would climb up. This would not only spoil any suspense that the effects might have, but it would not fit in with Seneca's general practice in this drama for confounding audience expectations. The simplest explanation, then, would be a backstage staircase.8

  Dramaturgical Issues

  ACT 1 (1–55)

  Action unit: Medea complains about Jason's unfaithfulness.

  At line 1, Medea enters from the center doors of her house and begins to speak. It is probable that the Nurse comes on at this point also, although Sutton would have her enter at the beginning of act 2.9 But throughout the play, she is a fairly constant companion and confidant of her mistress, and so it would be most sensible to have her present, though silent, from the very start of the drama. As usual, there is no motivation for the entrance. Medea identifies herself (Medeae, 8) and prays (precor, 12) with appropriate gestures. During the monologue, her mind undergoes internal struggles (mens intus agitat, 47). She finally falls silent at line 55, and withdraws to the scaenae frons, along with the Nurse. Sutton gives the option for Medea to exit here, but acknowledges that it would be better for her to remain onstage through the choral epithalamium.10 Further, when she speaks in the next act, she indicates that she has heard the wedding song (aures pepulit hymenaeus meas, 116), indicating that she has been onstage the whole time.

  FIRST CHORAL SONG (56–115)

  The Chorus enters at line 56.11 It uses several meters, starting with minor asclepiadeans, followed by glyconics, then another section of minor asclepiadeans, and finally six lines of dactylic hexameter. Euripides does not include a parallel wedding hymn in his Medea, but in the Bacchae there is a similar ode, in which the Chorus orders its fellow bacchants to go forth and honor Dionysus with their frolicking (152–69). In that passage, Euripides uses cantica polymetra, which include lines of glyconics and of dactyls. On the other hand, the traditional meter for an epithalamium is dactylic hexameter.12 So Seneca seems to be invoking the precedent of Euripides by mixing meters, while at the same time evoking tradition by including hexameters. At line 115, the Chorus concludes its song and withdraws to the scaenae frons.13

  ACT 2 (116–300)

  Action units: (1) Medea and her Nurse discuss the situation. (2) Creon banishes Medea from Corinth.

  At line 116, Medea steps forward and speaks. The Nurse's first words beg Medea to be silent (sile obsecro, 150) and to keep her laments to herself. It was not necessary for her to say anything before this, because nobody else was there, and Medea could rage and plot revenge to her heart's content. But now the Nurse is alert to the danger and warns Medea to be careful because the Chorus, which is clearly hostile to her, is present and capable of overhearing. Dialogue between Medea and the Nurse ensues (155–76), with neither character speaking for more than two lines, while they frequently interrupt each other in the middle of lines.

  Suddenly, the palace gates creak (sed cuius ictu regius cardo strepit? 177), cueing a sound effect from the wing leading to the palace. Medea announces that an excited Creon enters (ipse est tumidus Creo, 178) from the same wing, along with a number of silent guards (famuli, 188). He begins to speak at line 179, but does not address Medea directly.14 She steps fiercely into his path (fert gradum contra ferox, 186). Her expression is threatening (minax, 187), and she moves closer to Creon so that she can hear what he is saying (nostros propius affatus petit, 187). He orders the mute attendants to keep Medea away from him (arcete, famuli, tactu et accessu procul, 188), finally addressing her at line 190. Dialogue ensues (192–202). In response to Creon's command that she leave (i, querere Colchis, 197), Medea breaks in midline with a promise to return (redeo; qui avexit, ferat, 197). The two then exchange monologues (Medea: 203–51; Creon: 252–71; Medea: 273–80). At 247–48, Medea describes the proper actions of a petitioner: kneeling, stretching out her hands, touching his garments, and so on; later, she performs these acts (supplexprecor, 282, and precor, 288). The scene ends with dialogue (281–300), during which Creon becomes so flustered that he twice interrupts in the middle of a line (290 and 297). Finally, he exits via the wing leading to the palace, saying that he must participate in the marriage rites for his daughter and Jason (sacra me thalami vocant, vocat precari festus Hymenaeo dies, 299–300). It is possible that the audience can hear the wedding songs offstage; but it is more likely that Creon simply knows that the time is approaching; or else it is the equivalent of a child's “I have to go. My mother is calling me.” Medea and the Nurse withdraw to the scaenae frons.15

  SECOND CHORAL SONG (301–379)

  At line 301, the Chorus steps forward. Its song consists entirely of anapests, a quite common meter for Seneca. It withdraws to the scaenae frons at the end of the ode (379).16

  ACT 3 (380–578)

  Action units: (1) Medea rages while the Nurse attempts to calm her down. (2) Jason claims that he is doing his best to help a disbelieving Medea. (3) She devises her plan to send the poisoned gifts to Creusa.

  The Nurse steps forward at line 380 and addresses Medea (alumna, 380), who rushes into her house (celerem quo rapis tectis pedem? 380). Sutton suggests that tectis means “on the roof,” and so Medea has climbed onto the roof of the scaena.17 I think it more likely simply to mean “to the house,”18 and so would have her exit through the center doors. By line 385, she has reentered. She rushes about here and there (recursat huc et huc, 385), not only moving around the stage, but also in and out of the center doors. Further, her actions are savage (motu effero, 385), like those of a maenad (382–84). Her face shows signs of frenzied rage (furoris ore signa lymphati gerens, 386) and is flushed (flammata facies, 387) as she works herself into a frenzy (spiritum ex alto citat, 387). Medea runs the gamut of emotion (omnis specimen affectus capit, 389), crying out (proclamat, 388), weeping copiously (oculos uberi fletu rigat, 388), smiling (renidet, 389), hesitating, threatening, raging, complaining, and moaning (haeret minatur aestuat queritur gemit, 390). Finally, rage gains the upper hand over the other emotions (exundat furor, 392). According to the Nurse, this anger is worse than anything she has ever seen in Medea (394–96). In fact, she seems to become the living embodiment of anger (vultum Furoris cerno, 396). Eventually, Medea stops rushing back and forth and delivers a monologue (397–425), before being interrupted midline by the Nurse, who in turn is interrupted by Medea. Sutton raises the possibility that, after her final words (429–30), the Nurse exits so that Medea and Jason can speak in private; she would then return at 568 after his departure.19 I see no reason for this, however. Seneca typically has a third party silently observing dialogue, a role that the Nurse fills admirably throughout the ensuing scene between her mistress and former master.

  At line 431, Jason enters without announcement via the wing leading to the palace, and begins to speak. As soon as she sees him, Medea angrily attacks him physically (ecce: viso memet exiluit, furit, 445), displaying her rage (fert odia prae se, 446) and obvious pain (totus in vultu est dolor, 446). She then verbally assaults Jason (447–89). In the following dialogue (490–560), both characters repeatedly burst in midline. Finally, Jason exits (discessit, 560).

  In the next monologue (568–78), Medea addresses the Nurse, and orders several things: that Medea's sons bring presents to Creusa; that the gifts be enchanted; that Hecate be summoned; that deadly rites be prepared; that the altars be set up; and that fl
ames resound in the house.20 When she is done, Medea exits with the Nurse through the center doors into the house to take care of these things.

  THIRD CHORAL SONG (579–669)

  At line 579, the Chorus steps forward and sings in sapphic stanzas. It prays with appropriate gestures (precamur, 595). At line 669, the song ends, and the Chorus withdraws to the scaenae frons.21

  ACT 4 (670–848)

  Action units: (1) The Nurse describes Medea's offstage actions as she prepares to perform the magic rituals. (2) Medea casts the spell onstage. (3) She sends her children to the palace with presents for Jason's new bride.

  At line 670, the Nurse enters from the center doors and speaks, shaking with fear (pavet animus, horret, 670). The following “messenger speech” describes events that are happening offstage. Specifically, the Nurse tells the audience what Medea is doing in the house.22 Nothing in the speech should be taken as indications of stage business. At line 738, Medea enters from the center doors. She makes noise, moves with a maddened pace, and sings (sonuit ecce vesano gradu canitque, 738–39). The earth trembles as Medea begins to speak (mundus vocibu sprimis tremit, 739); this is, however, not a stage effect, but something the audience is meant to imagine.