The Dramaturgy of Senecan Tragedy

by Thomas; Kohn

  But if Megara is actually no longer onstage during act 3, where did she go, and when? As was noted previously, Lycus, before his exit at the end of act 2, advises her to keep clinging to the altars for safety, and then orders his servants to set fire to the shrine in which she and the children are hiding. Fitch assumes this altar is in front of the center doors, which he takes to represent the palace, as they do in many Senecan plays, such as the Agamemnon and the Oedipus.10 But this entrance does not always stand for the royal residence. In act 3 of the Troades, for example, the main doors represent the tomb of Hector. Andromache hides Astyanax there in hopes that she can prevent his capture by Ulixes. All is going well with this plan until the Ithacan threatens to tear down the tomb, which would ironically cause the child to be killed by his own sanctuary, as well as symbolically by his own father.11 Similarly, in the Hercules Furens, the central doors must represent the temple into which Megara and the children flee for safety after her last words to Lycus, and in front of which the king orders his servants to pile wood, thus dramaturgically giving a reason for closing the doors until later.12 Much like the tomb of Hector in the Troades, this temple does not offer much protection to Megara, as it is first threatened by Lycus, and later stormed by the finally fully insane Hercules, who kills his own children, as Hector nearly did. In act 5, once Hercules has come to his senses, the center doors are opened and an exostra used to reveal the corpses inside the temple.

  The play, then, only needs three actors, as long as the same performer portrays both Hercules and Megara, shouting the lines of both characters from offstage during the slaughter in act 4.13 Besides being a practical necessity, such a pairing lets the same actor play husband and wife, along with murderer and victim. This, then, leaves the third actor being assigned Lycus in act 2 and Theseus in acts 3, 4, and 5. The only part remaining is Juno. In the prologue, the goddess expresses her intent to persecute Hercules, and then to stand back and observe the carnage. When the action of the play begins, the tyrant, Lycus, threatens and otherwise abuses Megara and Amphitryo, the family of Hercules. And for large portions of the drama, Theseus is onstage, silently observing his friend's misfortunes. Lycus and Theseus, then, carry out the actions that Juno promised, and so it would be highly symbolic for all three characters to be portrayed by the same actor.14

  Finally, there is little textual indication of who the Chorus is.15 The fact that this identification is unclear from the text is in keeping with the tragedy's theme of madness, uncertainty, and ambiguity. In Euripides’ Herakles, it is clearly stated that the Chorus consists of elderly Theban citizens.16 But there is no similar identification in our Roman drama, nor any clue in the manuscripts; and so Seneca's Chorus could be any group of people who are interested in and sympathetic with Hercules and his family. Its main role throughout the drama is to observe and comment, although it does apparently remove Hercules’ weapons after he collapses.17 It is doubtful that it represents the Furies and other denizens of the Underworld Juno addressed in the prologue, as they would be visible only to Hercules, whereas this Chorus addresses Amphitryo at lines 1032–34, and Theseus announces its presence at lines 827–29. Another reasonable guess would be female servants of Megara; but the Chorus remains long after she has exited, and it speaks sympathetically to Hercules after he kills her. In the third choral song, a number of celebratory events are described. It is possible, but by no means certain, that the Chorus is performing these acts. It goes on to sing of a chorus of young women mixed with men, which would be a clue as to its identity, if the Chorus is, in fact, relating its own actions. But, as this is extremely tenuous, it may be best to simply identify the Chorus as Thebans.

  The center doors in this play represent not the royal residence as in most Senecan drama, but a temple.18 One wing leads to the palace, which could be seen as equivalent to the forum, that is, a public place where public events happen, while Hercules and Theseus use the other on their approach from the Underworld, the ultimate “foreign part.”

  Dramaturgical Issues

  ACT 1 (1–124)

  Action unit: Juno delivers the prologue, informing the audience of her intent to drive Hercules mad.

  At line 1, Juno enters and begins her monologue. She identifies herself as Jupiter's sister (soror tonantis, 1), but, as is typical for Senecan tragedy, she gives no motivation for her entrance. She is a goddess, and so it would be appropriate for her to appear ex machina, hovering in the air above the stage. She states unequivocally, however, that all the mortal harlots with whom Jupiter has slept and produced sons have usurped her accustomed place on Mt. Olympus (ac templa summi vidua deservi aetheris locumque caelo pulsa paelicibus dedi, 3–4). Thus, Juno has been evicted from her usual spot, and stands on the stage as any other mortal character would.19 There is also no indication of which entrance she uses, but the temple is a fitting place for her to spend her exile. While discussing the various lovers of Jupiter and their children who have taken over the heavens as constellations, she uses demonstrative pronouns to point them out (hinc…hinc…illinc…hinc…hinc, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14). It is possible that the constellations are actually painted on the scaenae frons, but more likely that she merely gesticulates toward the sky as she talks. Further, when Juno talks of the river Styx (en retegit Styga, 54), as well as the horrors of the Underworld (hic tibi ostendam inferos, 91) that she will show to Hercules here on earth, such sights should not be thought to be realistically portrayed. Instead, such statements speak to the theme of the play: madness. Just as in Shakespeare's Macbeth, the characters describe things, and the audience is not sure whether they are real or not. As early as the prologue, then, Seneca establishes that the spectators cannot trust their eyes, and that the characters are not necessarily in touch with reality. At line 118, Juno says she will remain (stabo) and supervise the Furies as they persecute Hercules, another indication that things are not what they seem. The audience is to accept the presence of Juno as it watches the rest of the play, even though she is not physically present. In fact, following line 124, Juno exits, going into the temple through the center doors. She does not give any motivation, nor comment on her departure in any way, aiding the illusion that she is still present in spirit; that is, if she does not discuss her leaving, it is almost as if she is still here.

  FIRST CHORAL SONG (125–201)

  At line 125, the Chorus enters20 via the wing leading to the forum and moves to center stage, singing in anapests. It establishes the time of day and year by describing constellations and other astronomical events (125–36). It further describes the sound of birds (146–51), indicating a sound cue.

  ACT 2 (202–523)

  Action units: (1) Amphitryo and Megara, the father and wife of Hercules, enter, and (2) bemoan the hero's absence from Thebes. (3) The evil king, Lycus, demands that Megara marry him. (4) She refuses.

  In an odd transition, partly sung and partly spoken, the Chorus announces the entrance of Megara (Megara, 203) and Amphitryo (Alcidae parens, 204) from the wing leading to the palace and the forum (202–4); the first two lines are anapestic, while the third reverts to trimeters. Megara is sad (maesta, 202), with unbound hair (crine soluto, 202), and accompanied by her children (parvum comitata gregem, 203), portrayed by mute actors. Amphitryo moves slowly because of his old age (tardus senio graditur, 204). Having finished, the Chorus moves back, silently, to the scaenae firms.21

  Amphitryo first delivers a long speech (205–78), followed by Megara (279–308). Dialogue then ensues (309–28). At line 313, Megara breaks in midline, snapping at Amphitryo's naive belief that Heracles will soon return; in response, Amphitryo, equally snappishly, interrupts in the middle of line 314.

  At lines 329–31, Megara announces the entrance of Lycus (Lycus, 331), accompanied by mute attendants. His mood, raging and threatening (saevus ac minas vultu gerens, 329), is reflected in the way he walks and carries himself (qualis animo est talis incessu venit, 330), and he brandishes a scepter in his right hand (aliena dextra sceptra concutiens, 331).
22 Lycus confirms this statement later on (rapta sed trepida manu sceptra optinentur, 341–42; and sceptra geram dextra, 399–400); but whereas Megara states that he shakes it deliberately in a threatening manner, Lycus blames his trembling hand, making it sound involuntary. Thus, Seneca shows two characters interpreting the same event in two different ways. Further, Lycus’ comment indicates weakness on his part. He cannot control his body. His hand seems to be shaking of its own accord. It either is not strong enough to bear the power he has seized, or it somehow anticipates the return of Hercules and the subsequent death of Lycus. The direction could also be a form of synecdoche: Lycus’ whole body could shake, not only his right hand. Perhaps he displays other tics as the scene progresses, which Megara interprets as savageness. When Lycus begins to speak at line 332, his monologue continues until 371, with a short interruption by Megara at 358; Lycus resumes in the middle of 359. During the speech, he draws a sword with his left hand (strictus tuetur ensis, 344).23 As if he had not previously noticed their presence, Lycus describes Megara and Amphitryo. She wears a mourning veil (tristi vestis obtentu caput velata, 355–56), and has taken refuge near the doors of the temple (iuxta praesides adstat deos, 356). Amphitryo clings to her side (laterique adhaeret, 357). Lycus stretches out his right hand for Megara to take in acceptance of his marriage proposal (continge dextram, 371); instead she fiercely remains silent (quid truci vultu siles? 371).

  After a pause, Megara refuses Lycus, indicating that his hand is, figuratively, covered in blood (sanguine aspersam manum, 372). The two characters exchange speeches and engage in dialogue (372–438), with the occasional midline interruption by Megara. Although three speaking actors are present, this scene follows the usual Senecan practice of rarely having more than two of them engage in conversation at any one time. After hearing Lycus’ proposal, Megara grows pale and shakes (gelidus per artus vadit exanguis tremor, 414), fearing such a marriage bed (thalamos tremesco, 418). Finally, at line 439, Amphitryo, who has been silent since Lycus’ entrance, and who has endured the king's insults as well as the proposition to Megara, has now had enough. In response to Lycus’ insolent question (quo patre genitus, 438), Amphitryo first tells his daughter-in-law to be quiet (miseranda coniunx Herculis magni, sile, 439), and then takes her place in the dialogue with the king. Megara obeys, not speaking again until lines 495–500, when she says the last words until her death. At line 503, she exits,24 with her children, through the center doors into the temple as Lycus commands her to seek sanctuary (complectere aras, 503). He further orders his mute servants to gather firewood (congerite silvas, 506) and set the temple on fire (templa flagrent, 506–7), so that the wife and children of Hercules might be burned (coniugem et totum gregem consumat rogus, 507–8). These commands, as far as we can tell, are not completely fulfilled.25 The servants might pile firewood before the center doors; but Megara and her children are not consumed by flames—unless by the metaphorical fires of Hercules’ passion. It is unlikely that an actual fire would be started onstage. The Chorus is not particularly concerned about the flames during its subsequent song. And the arrival of Hercules in the next episode is not greeted with “Put out the fire! Your family is burning!” The lack of actual flames may indicate that the guards have either piety for the gods or pity for Megara; in either case, Lycus’ power is not as absolute as he believes. But, apparently confident that his servants will, in fact, set the temple on fire in his absence, Lycus exits through the wing leading to the forum and the palace, intending to go and pray to Neptune (sacro regentem maria votivo colam, 515) while the pyre burns (dum cremandis trabibus accrescit rogus, 514). Amphitryo remains onstage, praying to the gods (516–20). He sees the temple move (subito labant agitata motu templa, 520–21), hears the ground moan (mugit solum, 521), and perceives a sound coming from the earth (infernus imo sonuit e fundo fragor, 522). It is doubtful that the scaenae frons actually totters here,26 but the sound effects are more possible. Or, like the effects that Juno describes in the prologue, like the blood Megara thinks she sees on Lycus’ hands, and like the fire that Lycus thinks consumes Megara, this could be another hallucination. Again, a character sees—and this time hears—something other than what the audience witnesses. And again we in the audience must ask whether we can trust our own senses. Since there is no indication that Amphitryo exits, and indeed he is an active participant in the next act from the very beginning, he retires to the scaenae frons as soon as he stops speaking.

  SECOND CHORAL SONG (524–91)

  At line 524, the Chorus begins its song, consisting entirely of minor asclepiadeans. Since it enters again at lines 827–29 and there is no other good place for it to leave between now and then, it is probable that the Chorus exits at the conclusion of its song.27 Since Hercules and Theseus will enter shortly from the wing leading to the Underworld, and Amphitryo stands near the center doors, the Chorus must go out through the same wing it had previously entered from, the one leading toward the palace and the forum. Evidently, after singing of the injustices suffered by both Hercules and Orpheus, it gets depressed and goes home.

  ACT 3 (592–829)

  Action units: (1) Hercules and Theseus emerge from the Underworld. (2) Amphitryo tells them about the evil deeds of Lycus. (3) While Hercules is offstage killing the tyrant, Theseus paints a vivid description of the Underworld and Hercules’ adventures there.

  At line 592, Hercules enters, with Theseus, via the wing leading to the Underworld. There is no announcement; or rather, Hercules’ entrance was announced by Amphitryo prior to the choral song (est sonitus Herculei gradus, 523), and it took seventy lines for the hero to appear;28 he is not identified until his father calls him “son” (natus, 621 and nate, 622). Hercules simply starts talking, thus indicating that he must have come onstage. He speaks for twenty-four lines before spotting either the guards at the temple or his father, who is still onstage, probably near the center doors, but nearer to the wing leading to the palace, since Hercules does not seem to see him. The delay suggests that it takes a long time to walk to the center from the side entrance.29 Hercules addresses the sun (o lucis almae rector et caeli decus, 592), indicating that he is looking up. He finally begins to notice his surroundings, namely that soldiers are guarding the center doors (sed templa quare miles infestus tenet limenque sacrum terror armorum obsidet? 616–17).

  At line 618, Amphitryo speaks. He is not sure whether his eyes deceive him (utrumne visus vota decipiunt meos, 618), or whether Hercules has actually returned. Happiness paralyzes Amphitryo (membra laetitia stupent, 621), explaining why he does not run to his long-absent son with open arms. Hercules is recognized by his muscles and shoulders (agnosco toros umerosque, 624–25), possibly denoting some kind of costume, perhaps a padded toga; more probably, simply telling the audience that the actor has a Herculean physique would be enough. He also proudly carries his signature club (et alto nobile in trunco manum, 625).30 He asks his father why his wife and children are filthy and in mourning clothes (626–28), providing an early sign that he has already begun to hallucinate, since his family exited before his entrance.31 After being informed of Lycus’ evil deeds (629–30), Hercules addresses Theseus (Theseu, 637), for the first time acknowledging that the Athenian hero entered with him. Hercules tells his friend to remain (resiste, 637), thus explaining why Theseus does not go with him. Finally, Hercules declares his intention to slay Lycus (nuntiet Diti Lycus me iam redisse, 639–40), and then exits via the wing leading to the palace.

  At line 640, Theseus pauses and then speaks for the first time, beginning his statement in the middle of a line. He must have followed Hercules to the middle of the stage, and so stands near Amphitryo close to the center doors. He plays along with his friend, addressing the absent Megara (regina, 641). He then turns his attention to Amphitryo, who is on the verge of weeping for joy (tuque nato sospite lacrimas cadentes reprime, 641–42). In response to the father's request (645–57), Theseus reluctantly delivers a messenger speech describing the adventures of Hercules in the Un
derworld (662–827).32

  Theseus breaks off his story suddenly in the middle of line 827 to announce the arrival of a large group of people (densa sed laeto venit clamore turba frontibus laurum gerens magnique meritas Herculis laudes canit, 827–29). Such an announcement is fairly typical of Greek New Comedy,33 and Seneca uses the same device at Oedipus 401–2.34 In the Oedipus, however, Tiresias simply announces that while he is gone, the Chorus will sing a song in praise of Bacchus. What makes the present announcement unusual is the present-indicative verb venit. Clearly, this crowd is now entering the stage. There has been some scholarly discussion as to whether this is a second Chorus or whether the previous one exited, unannounced, at some time in the past. Sutton claims this is another Chorus,35 while others disagree.36 Textually, this is indeed problematic. The just-mentioned scholars all point out that in Greek tragedy, there is always a good thematic reason for introducing a secondary Chorus;37 they then proceed to argue about what a “good thematic reason” might be. But the consideration of stagecraft can suggest a solution. Although Calder argues persuasively that a Senecan Chorus consists of three to seven people,38 the stage is still not big enough to fit five to nine people standing still (the first Chorus plus Amphitryo and Theseus), in addition to three to seven people dancing. It is more likely that the original Chorus exited, silently, at the end of its last song (line 591). It now enters wearing laurel wreaths and singing praises to Hercules, having just passed the hero (offstage) on his way to kill Lycus. It has returned to Amphitryo so that they may all rejoice together. There is no reason to think that Amphitryo and Theseus exit during the song. And indeed, in the next episode, Hercules addresses Theseus and engages in conversation with Amphitryo. Instead, the two men retire to the scaenae frons.

  THIRD CHORAL SONG (830–94)

  At line 830, the Chorus begins to sing in minor sapphics, later changing at line 875 to glyconics. After the metrical change, it describes a number of celebratory events (aras tangite supplices, pingues caedite victimas. permixtae maribus nurus sollemnes agitent choros, 876–79), raising the possibility that the Chorus actually performs these activities while it sings. It ends the song with an address to a priest, telling him to don a poplar wreath (stantes sacrificus comas dilecta tege populo, 893–94). Fitch sensibly suggests that the priest is actually Hercules himself,39 making the remark an entrance announcement.