The Dramaturgy of Senecan Tragedy

by Thomas; Kohn

  ACT 4 (895–1053)

  Action units: (1) Hercules returns triumphant; (2) but suddenly he has visions, mistaking his own wife and children for the family of Lycus. (3) He then brutally kills them, one by one, (4) and finally collapses.

  At line 895, Hercules, having entered from the wing leading to the forum and the palace, speaks. The Chorus withdraws to the scaenaefrons,40 and Amphitryo and Theseus step forward. The ensuing act is emotionally fraught, as is demonstrated by frequent midline interruptions. Hercules carries weapons with him, specifically a bow (lines 992–95) and a club (lines 999–1001). He prays to Minerva (te te precor, belligera Pallas, 900–901) with appropriate gestures, then addresses Theseus (te Theseu, 913–14).41 Next, he commands mute attendants to pour incense upon the altars (date tura flammis, 918). But Amphitryo interrupts his son in the middle of a line, to tell him to wash his hands, still dripping from the slaughter of Lycus (nate, manantes prius manus cruenta caede et hostili expia, 918–19). Hercules responds with a wish that he could use the gore as a libation (utinam cruore capitis invisi deis libare possem, 920–21), throwing up his hands to bespatter the stage, the altar, his father, and possibly even the front rows of the audience.

  Suddenly Hercules breaks off his rant in the middle of line 939, as his hallucinations take over in earnest (acieque falsum turbida caelum vides? 954). He paces back and forth (quo, nate, vultus huc et huc acres refers? 953), showing by his actions, not just his words, that he is seeing things that nobody else can see. Finally, he thinks he sees the children of Lycus (sed ecce proles regis inimici latet, 987), mistakenly identifying his own sons for the progeny of his enemy. Since the boys had previously exited into the temple with their mother, the mute actors who portrayed them in the first act must be peeking through the center doors.

  At line 991, the slaughter begins. Hercules has drawn his bow and let a whistling arrow fly. The missile passes through the neck and leaves a fatal wound (992–95). But clearly this is not really happening onstage. Instead, Hercules, standing to one side of the center doors, mimes the actions as Amphitryo describes them: he pulls back the bow and fires an imaginary arrow into the temple. The mute actor playing the son of Hercules, hiding behind the slightly ajar center doors, staggers back, as if having been hit. Thus, Hercules and his son act out the basic actions of the killing, and Amphitryo fills in the details for the audience. Megara and another silent boy must pull the corpse inside and shut the doors, which Hercules then attacks with his club, breaking the bar and the gates themselves, and causing cracks and collapsed columns (huc eat et illuc clava disiecto obice rumptatque postes. columen impulsum labet. perlucet omnis regia, 999–1001). Again, the actor does not literally destroy the set, but instead hacks at the scenery with his club and lets his words help the audience fill in the details of destruction. He calls the structure regia instead of templa, reminding the audience that he thinks he is killing the children of the king, who of course would have gone to the palace for refuge. As a result of the attack, the doors are slightly ajar, allowing Hercules to see his second son (hic video abditum gnatum scelesti patris, 1001–2). He exits into the temple through the center doors, while Amphitryo moves to the slender opening and looks within, reporting what he sees.42

  After a short pause, the old man describes the next murder, which occurs behind the center doors. The child touches his father's knees in supplication (blandas manus ad genua tendens, 1002) and begs for mercy in a wretched voice (voce miseranda rogat, 1003). The raging Hercules, however, seizes the suppliant (precantem rapuit furens, 1005) and sends him spinning numerous times (bis ter rotatum misit, 1006). The child's head makes a noise (illi caput sonuit, 1006–7) when it hits, and the ceiling of the temple drips with scattered brains (cerebro tecta disperso madent, 1007). But Megara, also raging (furenti similis, 1009), tries to protect her third son (parvum protegens gnatum sinu, 1008) and flees from the shadows (e latebris fugit, 1009). Lines 1010–11, spoken by Hercules, 1015–17, spoken by Megara, and 1018–20, again by Hercules, are all delivered from offstage by the same actor43—in a very real sense, Hercules is depriving Megara of life by taking the only available actor.

  After another short pause, Amphitryo vividly describes for the audience the offstage killings of Megara and the third child of Hercules. The boy is truly terrified (pavefactus spiritum eripuit pavor, 1022–23) by his father's fiery expression (igneo vultu, 1022), while Hercules smashes Megara with his club (in coniugem nunc clava libratur gravis, 1024). Amphitryo, meanwhile, points to the slaughter (stipitem istum huc caede, 1029). At lines 1032–34, the Chorus speaks in iambic trimeter within an episode for the first, and only, time in this play, addressing an onstage character. Amphitryo rushes around the stage in his grief (quo te ipse ingeris? Quo pergis amens? 1032–33). The Chorus advises him to seek shelter, lest he too be killed by Hercules (profuge et obtectus late unumque manibus aufer Herculeis scelus, 1033–34), but Amphitryo has no time to obey.

  At line 1035, Hercules reenters from the center doors and speaks. Only his words mark his entrance. He points to the corpses of his wife and children (hunc gregem, 1036–37), indicating that they are onstage. When the center doors open for his entrance, the exostra must roll out with a tableau of the slaughter. Amphitryo stands nearby (stat ecce ad aras hostia, 1040),44 with his neck bent in the manner of a sacrificial victim (expectat manum cervice prona, 1040–41). Like nearly everyone else involved with this play at one time or another, including the audience, he questions his eyesight (quid hoc est? errat acies luminum visusque maeror hebebat? 1042–43). Nevertheless, he continues to describe Hercules’ actions. His hands tremble (Herculis manus trementes, 1043–44). His eyes droop shut (vultus in somnum cadit, 1044), and his head sinks (et fessa cervix capite summisso labat, 1045). Finally, his knees give way and he falls to the ground (flexo genu iam totus ad terram ruit, 1046). Hercules sleeps (sopor est, 1050), but it is a fitful rest (reciprocos spiritus motus agit, 1050). Amphitryo then commands those still onstage to be quiet (detur quieti tempus, 1051) and orders mute attendants to take away Hercules’ weapons (removete, famuli, tela, 1053). That they obey him is confirmed when Hercules awakes (cur latus laevum vacat spolio leonis? quonam abit tegimen meum idemque somno mollis Herculeo torus? ubi tela? ubi arcus? 1150–53).

  FOURTH CHORAL SONG (1054–1137)

  At line 1054, the Chorus moves forward with no announcement, and sings in anapests, a meter not particularly suited for quiet, as requested by Amphitryo. It is, however, appropriate for a choral procession. The Chorus used it for its parodos, and this ode, the final one of the play, seems to be an exit song. It starts as a lament for all Hercules has suffered, then becomes a description of the slumbering hero. He lies on the ground asleep (en fusus humi saeva feroci corde volutat somnia, 1082–83), but unfortunately, has not yet fully recovered from his madness (nondum est tanti pestis superata mali, 1083–84). In his sleep, he searches for his missing club with his right hand (quaerit vacua pondera dextra, 1086). His arms twitch or thrash, as if Hercules were having some kind of seizure (motu iactans bracchia vano, 1087). Now the Chorus orders the sleeping Hercules to beat his chest hard enough to make a sound (nunc Herculeis percussa sonent pectora palmis, 1100–1), corresponding to the ictus of the song, driving the choral dance. The self-inflicted blows are said to resound and be heard throughout the whole world (1104–14) and cause the slumbering Hercules to strike his arms with his hand (lacertos verbera pulsent ultrice manu, 1102–3). Next, the Chorus orders Hercules’ weapons to beat him (1115–21). This is clearly fantastical and not actually happening,45 but is in keeping with the general theme of the play: either characters (in this case, the entire Chorus) hallucinate, or else see things that the audience cannot. The ode ends as a prayer that the spirits of Hercules’ dead sons should go to their proper places in the Underworld (1122–37). Of the final seven lines of this song, four begin with the imperative ite.46 These words are ostensibly directed to the ghosts; but the Chorus, at last overcome by sorrow, also addresses itself,
using the constant strong beat, ite, and the processional quality of the anapestic rhythm to exit the stage.47

  ACT 5 (1138–1344)

  Action units: (1) Hercules awakes and slowly realizes what he has done. (2) Amphitryo and Theseus convince him to not commit suicide.

  At line 1138, with no transition from choral song to episode, Hercules awakes and begins to speak. He sees the corpses of his sons displayed on the exostra (unde prostrata ad donum video cruenta corpora? 1143–44), but does not seem to recognize them, as he does not exclaim something like, “Why are my sons lying dead?” At long last, though far too late, Hercules wonders if he is hallucinating (an nondum exuit simulacra mens inferna? post reditus quoque oberrat oculis turba feralis meis? 1144–46). Ironically, the answer is no. After 1,100 lines of everyone seeing things that are not really there, finally the illusions have been lifted from Hercules’ eyes, and he sees the truth at the very time that he would want to be deceived. He trembles with fear (paveo, 1147) and at last recognizes the corpses of his wife and children (gnati cruenta caede confecti iacent, perempta coniunx, 1160–61). His sins stand revealed to the world (en nudus asto, 1172). Hercules also notices Theseus and Amphitryo, who both refuse to make eye contact with him (cur meos Theseus fugit paterque vultus? ora cur condunt sua? 1173–74) and weep (differte fletus, 1175). They remain silent and continue to cry, although Hercules begs them to tell him what has happened (quid, genitor, siles? at tu ede, Theseu, sed tua Theseu, fide. uterque tactitus ora pudibunda obtegit furtimque lacrimas fundit, 1176–79).

  Finally, Amphitryo speaks in the middle of line 1186. The rest of the play consists of dialogue, mostly between Hercules and his father, with many speaker changes occurring midline; Theseus speaks only twice, although Hercules addresses him several times. Hercules stretches forth his hands in supplication (supplices tendo manus, 1192), but Amphitryo shrinks away (manus refugit, 1193). Hercules points to the gore (hic cruor, 1194) and to the arrow (illa harundo, 1194–95) that killed his son. But he soon recognizes his weapons, which are either lying next to, or perhaps sticking out of, his family (iam tela video nostra. non quaero manum, 1196). Amphitryo and Theseus are silent for a moment (tacuere. nostrum est, 1200) confirming Hercules’ suspicions. At last, Amphitryo begins to speak in the middle of the line, observing that Hercules is not yet entirely free from madness: once again, the insanity manifests itself physically as his chest heaves and he rages against himself (nondum tumultu pectus attonito carens mutavit iras, quodque habet proprium furor, in se ipse saevit, 1219–21). And yet Hercules is not able to cry (hic durus malis lacrimare vultus nescit, 1228–29). He repeatedly demands to be given his weapons so that he may break and burn them (1229–95), but is not obeyed until line 1295 (reddo arma). At last, after standing silently onstage since the third choral song, Theseus speaks at line 1272. He weeps (sed tamen nostro quoque movere fletu, 1273–74) and tells Hercules to get up off of the ground (surge, 1274). Hercules and Amphitryo point to specific items (hoc…hoc…hoc, 1296–98). The former is still wracked with powerful emotions, which continue to manifest themselves physically (ecce quam miserum metu cor palpitat pectusque sollicitum ferit, 1298–99). In despair, he has drawn the bow and holds it ready to fire (aptata harundo est, 1300). Further, he has a villainous expression (ecce iam facies scelus volens sciensque, 1300–1301). Amphitryo then points, emphatically and violently, to where he will lie once he has been killed by his son (hic, hic iacebit Herculis sani scelus, 1313). In response, Hercules tells Amphitryo that the old man should no longer point out his own resting place (revoca manum, 1314), but instead asks Theseus to help Amphitryo find a seat on the ground (artus alleva afflicti solo, Theseu, parentis, 1317–18). Amphitryo, however, remains standing while gladly grasping his son's hand (hanc manum amplector libens, hac nisus ibo, pectori hanc aegro admovens pellam dolores, 1319–21). Theseus then speaks the final words of the play (1341–44). It is unclear what happens at the end of the drama. Theseus has just promised Hercules absolution in Athens. They may leave Thebes immediately, or else, together with Amphitryo, they exit through the wing leading to the palace in order to prepare for their journey.

  Conclusions

  This story was previously dramatized by Euripides in his Heracles48 (ca. 414 BCE). Seneca's play basically follows the structure of Euripides'. The Roman tragedy retains Euripidean innovations: the placement of the hero's labors before the murder of Megara and the children; the invention of the usurper Lycus; and the appearance of Theseus.49 Both tragedies have almost the same cast of characters, with Seneca substituting the goddess Juno for Euripides’ Iris and Lyssa (Madness); and Seneca's Juno appears at the beginning of the play instead of toward the middle. Finally, whereas Euripides’ Theseus enters at the end, Seneca's comes on with Hercules in act 2, delivers a long description of the Underworld, and spends much of the play onstage as a silent observer. Still, it seems that Seneca followed the tradition of Euripides’ play, although the Roman play displays more unity.50

  A few questions still remain. First, why does Seneca begin the play with a prologue by Juno? It is a departure from Euripides’ Heracles, which starts with speeches by Amphitryo and Megara. And in the Phaedra Seneca cuts the initial monologue by Venus in his version of Euripides’ Hippolytus. So, clearly the Roman playwright chose to use a divine prologue in this drama. Second, who exactly is the Chorus, and what is its role in this drama? Third, what is Theseus’ role? His first job is to describe Hercules’ activities in Hades; and then he remains silent throughout act 3 and most of act 4. Finally, why are many of the entrances and exits unmarked and unclear? All of these issues can be resolved by considering the main “event” of this play: the madness of Hercules. Euripides’ Herakles is notoriously not unified. The first half of the Greek play deals with the dire situation in Thebes; the second focuses on Herakles’ slaughter of his family. Seneca's play has these same elements; but Juno's appearance at the beginning informs the audience that a mad Hercules will shortly return home and deal with the situation. Juno makes it clear that Hercules is already insane, and has been since arriving in the Underworld. So from the very start the madness is established as the central action. Theseus is necessary so that the audience can “witness” the beginnings of Hercules’ mania. He is the only one who could deliver a firsthand account of the start of Juno's revenge. And since he was the initial witness, he must continue to observe. Further, the goddess needs someone to witness her victory over Hercules. Her initial complaints in the prologue involve constellations. It is not just that Jupiter cheated on her, but that everybody on earth can see. So the defeat of Hercules must be viewed by someone not related to him. But it is not necessary for the witness to say anything, and so Theseus remains silent. The Chorus seems to be a friend to Hercules, or at least personally interested in his affairs. It responds positively to his victories and laments his misfortunes, even to the extent of wandering offstage when things look bleak. It is too emotionally involved to be an impartial observer, thus further explaining the necessity for the more impersonal Theseus. Finally, Hercules’ madness manifests itself by hallucinations and uncertainty. He cannot trust his own eyes. He sees things that are not there, does not see what is clear to everyone else, and is often not sure what he is seeing. And, as is typical for Seneca, the rest of the characters suffer the same emotional symptoms as the main character. Thus, Juno and the Chorus think they see constellations where there are none, and Theseus thinks he sees the wife of Hercules after she must have exited. The characters are often so uncertain that they either cannot or will not comment on entrances or exits, or even fully identify who they are. Thus all of the elements of this play that seem to be fuzzy and unclear dramaturgy in fact reinforce the central theme: Hercules is mad and not in control of his own senses.

  CHAPTER 7

  Troades (Trojan Women)

  The distribution of roles in this play is particularly significant.1 One actor portrays the herald Talthybius, the seer Calchas, Andromache's Old Servant, Helen, and the
anonymous Messenger. All of these characters are messengers or facilitators: Talthybius reports the demands of the ghost of Achilles, which Calchas confirms, adding also the necessity for sacrificing Astyanax; the Old Servant simply acts as a confidant for Andromache, helping and giving moral support as she attempts to protect her son; Helen prepares Polyxena for her imminent sacrifice; and the Messenger describes the deaths of Astyanax and his aunt. None of these are major roles, yet they are quite necessary for the play to progress.

  A second actor is assigned Pyrrhus and Andromache. These characters would not seem to have much in common at first glance; and yet they are each related to one of the two ghosts who are prominent in the play: Achilles and Hector.2 Further, both Pyrrhus and Andromache immediately and unquestioningly believe the spirits and act to carry out their wishes. Pyrrhus argues with Agamemnon concerning the sacrifice of Polyxena, and ultimately is victorious. Andromache, after a visitation from her husband's spirit, attempts to hide Astyanax from Ulixes, but fails in the end. Thus, the two characters who are connected to supernatural entities and who have vested interests in the sacrifices are played by the same actor.

  The third actor gets the foils Agamemnon and Ulixes, as well as Hecuba. The first two aim to block Pyrrhus and Andromache, respectively. And Hecuba, in a certain sense, is a foil to the victorious Greeks. She surrenders herself to grief to such an extent that she claims it as her own. And she rejoices in the end when she discovers that she has been given to Ulixes, and thus prevented him from receiving a valuable prize.