Death in Florence: the Medici, Savonarola and the Battle for the Soul of the Renaissance City
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as preaching order, 48, 71, 95
in charge of Inquisition, 48, 334
known as Black Friars, 48
Savonarola joins, 46, 48
monastery at Bologna, 46, 48–9
monastery at Ferrara, 49
Studium generale, 49, 74, 94
monastery of San Marco, Florence see San Marco, monastery of
attitudes towards, 56
and Pico della Mirandola, 100, 148, 209
Savonarola attracts recruits into, 162
Provost General of, 254 and n
see also Chapter General of the Dominicans of Lombardy; Lombardy Congregation; Tuscan Congregation
Donatello, 12, 260
Donati, Lucrezia, 23–4
Dowry Fund (Monte delle Doti), 116–18, 122
Edward IV, King of England, 20, 78
Egypt, 65
Sultan of, 66
Elba, 61
England, 15, 131, 300, 304, 352n, 370
Enrico, Fra, 327–8
Este, Borso d’, Duke of Ferrara, 21, 22–3, 39, 40–1, 44
Este, Ercole d’, Duke of Ferrara, 44, 45, 50, 51, 57, 58, 59
Este, Niccolò d’, 44, 49
Este, d’, family, 39, 40n, 52, 57 see also names of individuals
Eugene IV, Pope, 160, 330
‘exchange’, 17–18
Exodus, Book of, 292, 302
Ezekiel, 262, 266
Faenza, 45, 46
Farnese, Giulia, 264
Federigo, Duke of Urbino, 58
Fedini, Piero, 298
Ferdinand II, King of Aragon, 304
Ferrante I, King of Naples
wedding of son, 15
support for Pazzi family, 34, 49
sends troops into Florentine territory, 34
Lorenzo the Magnificent succeeds in winning over, 3, 35
signs peace treaty with Florence, 36, 50
and war between Venice and Ferrara, 57, 58
and Alfonsina Orsini, 80, 139
permits Lorenzo to purchase post of Abbot of Monte Cassino for his son, 92
Savonarola’s prediction about death of, 114, 133, 134, 176
and Isabella of Naples, 167
death, 171, 176
brief references, 51, 122, 169, 186
Ferrante II, King of Naples, 219, 220
Ferrara, 7, 15, 44–5, 49, 50 and n, 51, 52, 53, 56, 57, 58, 59, 122
Savonarola’s early life and career in, 39–40, 41–4, 45, 46, 94–5
University of, 42, 52, 70
Ficino, Marsilio
and education of Lorenzo the Magnificent, 14
and education of Lorenzo’s sons, 31
and education of Lorenzo and Giovanni di Pierfrancesco de’ Medici, 31
and Botticelli, 61, 67, 182, 183
thinks highly of Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco, 61–2
ascendancy in Florentine cultural community, 67
and Pico della Mirandola, 67–8, 69, 81, 83, 85
appointed as canon of Florence Cathedral, 80
and Savonarola, 106, 134, 217, 227, 237–8, 261, 299
and Lorenzo’s funeral, 130
in old age, 261, 298–9
brief references, 75, 93–4, 108, 138, 147, 163, 195
Writings:
Apologus, 85
‘Apology of Marsilio Ficino on behalf of the many Florentine people …’, 299
De Amore (About Love) (commentary on Plato’s Symposium), 80–1, 83
Fiesole, 90, 119, 128, 155, 162, 164, 359
Filipepi, Simone, 236–7, 299, 336, 356
Fivizzano, 185
Flanders, 66
Florence
and the Renaissance, 2, 6, 9, 10, 18, 30, 60–1, 106–7, 139n, 234, 238, 302
Cosimo de’ Medici invited to return to, 11
consolidation of Medici rule over, 11–12
birth of Lorenzo de’ Medici in, 11
early life of Lorenzo in, 12–15
artistic and intellectual life under Medici rule, 6, 12–13, 13–14, 30–1, 54, 60–1, 66–9, 80–1, 83, 93–4, 170–1, 181–3
Piero de’ Medici the Gouty becomes ruler of, 15
Piero’s rule endangered by crisis in Medici bank, 16
and ‘exchange’, 17
Piero’s precarious position in, 18
polarises into Party of the Hill and Party of the Plain, 20
petition calls for old republican method of elections, 20–1
conspiracy against Piero in, 21–3
jousting tournament, 24
Lorenzo’s marriage to Clarice Orsini in, 25–6
and death of Piero, 26, 27
Lorenzo comes to power in, 26–7
Lorenzo tightens hold over electoral process in, 27
and Volterra, 29
Pazzi family resents the Medici’s position in, 32
Pazzi conspiracy against Lorenzo in, 33–4
population excommunicated by Sixtus IV, 34
papal troops and King Ferrante’s troops move against, 34
peace with Naples accomplished by Lorenzo’s actions, 35–6
public funds used by Lorenzo, 35–6, 64, 79, 92–3, 116–18
makes peace with Sixtus IV, 36
changes to constitution of, 36–7
cultural influence of, 37
spectacular entertainments in, 37–8
Savonarola arrives in, 38
Savonarola’s life and work in see Savonarola, Girolamo
population of, 50
poverty in, 56
discussion of politics among citizens of, 57
and war between Venice and Ferrara, 57–9
alliance with Piombino achieved through marriage of Lorenzo de Pierfrancesco de’ Medici, 61
legal arbitration over inheritance of Lorenzo and Giovanni di Pierfrancesco, 63
Guicciardini’s assessment of, 64–5
prosperity, 65
trade and commerce, 65, 66
and Lorenzo’s desire for alliance with Innocent VIII, 75
marriage of Lorenzo’s son Piero as part of attempt to secure Medici succession in, 80, 92
Lorenzo becomes concerned about lax attitude to religion in, 94
references in Savonarola’s sermons to, 103–4, 188, 214, 223, 257
and preaching of Fra Bernardino da Feltre, 105
problem over coinage, 116
ceremonies for Giovanni de’ Medici’s installation as cardinal, 119–20
Lorenzo suffers from illness in, 122
omens, 122–3, 128–9
and Lorenzo’s encounter with Savonarola, 125, 126, 127
situation at time of Lorenzo’s death, 4–7
Lorenzo’s body brought to, 130
Lorenzo’s funeral in, 130–1
state of the economy, 131–2
speculation about Savonarola’s prophecies, 133, 134
dialect becomes national language, 135–6
Piero de’ Medici the Unfortunate becomes ruler of, 137–9
divided loyalties at outset of Piero’s rule, 139–40
Savonarola’s aims concerning, 141, 142–3, 162, 188, 214
Piero’s foreign policy, 154, 171–3
delegation to Alexander VI, 154, 155–6, 158–9
financial situation during Piero’s rule, 161–2
and Siena, 165
snow in 1494, 169–70
opinion turns against Piero, 174
disagreements over foreign policy, 174–5
delegation of French ambassadors in, 175–6
news about French invasion reaches, 177–8
divided opinion about Savonarola, 180–1
mission sent to Charles VIII by Piero, 184
mercenaries defend fortresses against the French, 185–6
Piero tries to intercede with the French on behalf of, 186
French demands, 186–7
Piero accepts demands, 187
state of fear in, 187
on verge of anarchy, 189
; anti–Medici sentiments voiced in, 189
delegation sent to the French as true representative of the people of, 189–90, 200
billeting arrangements for the French, 190–1, 192, 202
last days of the Medici in, 191–6
pillage after departure of the Medici, 197–8
informed by Savonarola of imminent arrival of the French in, 201–2
situation before arrival of the French, 202–3
the French in, 203–8
weakened situation after departure of the French, 211
discussions about and formation of new government, 211–12, 214–17
mob actions after departure of the French, 212–13
misgivings about extent of Savonarola’s power in, 217–18
Savonarola describes conversation with Virgin Mary about, 228
‘Compendium of Revelations’ published in, 229
divisions in, 230–1, 233, 267, 296–7
building of hall for Great Council, 231–2
problems in system of government, 232–3
trade affected by continuing independence of Pisa, 233–4, 252
conflict with Pisa, 233–4, 252, 255–6, 257–8, 292
artists and intellectuals in the republic, 234–5, 236–8, 260–1, 298–300
so-called papal Brief arrives in, 239–40
Savonarola’s advice to citizens of, 243
Savonarola’s boys in, 245–6, 247–9, 260, 261, 262, 266, 276, 296
new law on sodomy, 246–7
authorities become concerned about Savonarola’s preaching, 251
endures poor weather and failed harvest, 252–3
plague in, 253 and n, 275, 279, 280, 282, 285, 291
and ‘French boils’, 253
forces ranged against, 257–8
government becomes unpopular, 258
famine in, 259, 266–7
corn prices, 259 and n, 269–70, 280
Bonfire of the Vanities, 261–2, 266, 296
envoy in Rome faces anger of Alexander VI, 264–5
impact of French treaty with Holy League on, 265
Valori elected as gonfaloniere, 267, 268
age of election to Great Council is lowered, 268
del Nero elected as gonfaloniere, 268–9
rumours about Piero de’ Medici circulate in, 269
Piero’s failed attempt to return to power in, 270–1
Cardinal Giovanni continues to scheme for Piero’s return to power in, 273
decree bans sermons in, 274–5
riot in cathedral, 275
elections make Arrabbiati the most influential faction in government, 275–6
tension and violence in, 276
Brief of Excommunication taken to, 276–7
Savonarola’s excommunication formally proclaimed in, 277
relaxation of prohibitions, 278–9
public rejoicing over Savonarola’s excommunication, 279
Bartoli elected as gonfaloniere, 279
measures taken to alleviate suffering in, 280
dell’ Antella makes his way to, 280
arrest and interrogation of dell’ Antella, 281
the fate of five alleged traitors in, 281–6
Savonarola’s supporters in control of government, 286
medals cast in, 287
election of Salviati as gonfaloniere, 288
Savonarola’s treatise on government of, 289–90
fierce winter of 1498, 291
predicament of Signoria in, 292
plot to assassinate Savonarola, 294
Bonsi sends despatch from Rome to, 294, 295
Alexander VI sends two Briefs to, 295
discussion of papal Briefs in, 296–7
election of Popoleschi as gonfaloniere, 298
divisions within Signoria, 298
receives ultimatum from the Vatican, 300
as focus for breakthrough in religious field, 302
opposition to suggestion of Council of the Church, 303
ordeal by fire episode, 304–21
violent incidents, 322–3
siege of San Marco, 323–9
arrest and imprisonment of Savonarola and Fra Domenico, 329–30
Savonarola’s trial and torture in, 331–43
interrogation of Fra Domenico in, 343–5
interrogation of Fra Silvestro in, 345
round-up and scourging of Piagnoni sympathisers, 347
discussions about next step, 347–8
despatch to Rome, 348
Savonarola remains in gaol in, 350
Savonarola is tried before Papal Commissioners in, 352–7
condemnation of the three friars, 357–8
the day before the execution of the three friars, 359–62
day of execution, 362–7
celebrations after the execution, 368
subsequent events, 369
see also names of locations in Florence
Florence Cathedral, 33, 80, 123, 135, 203, 204, 248–9, 261, 275, 288, 294, 322–3
sermons in, 102, 103, 104, 110, 132, 166, 179–80, 187–9, 201, 213, 222–3, 249, 257, 267, 292–3
Floridi, Bartolomeo, 240 and n, 243
Fonti di San Gaggio, 270 and n
Fornovo, 221
France/the French
coronation of Charles VIII, 61
Giovanni de’ Medici’s bishopric, 77
imprisonment and subsequent release of Pico della Mirandola, 90
and Cardinal della Rovere, 158, 172
Ludovico Sforza appeals to, 168
preparation for invasion to claim throne of Naples, 171
invasion postponed, 172
Florence as traditional ally of, 172
Piero de’ Medici breaks Florentine alliance with, 172–3
and Lorenzo and Giovanni di Pierfrancesco de’ Medici, 174–5, 185
ambassadors visit Florence before the invasion, 175
request for safe conduct across Florentine territory is refused, 175–6
invasion of Italy, 76–8, 183–7, 189
Piero’s reception by, 186–7
Piero agrees to demands of, 187 and Florentine delegation, 189–90, 200
billeting arrangements in Florence, 190–1, 192, 202
army in Pisa, 199–200
army approaches Florence, 201
army in Florence, 203–8
impact of presence in Tuscany, 211
army in Rome, 218–19
army in Naples, 219
Holy League alliance formed against, 219–20
army marches north, 220
army encounters forces of Holy League, 220–1
and Savonarola’s prophecy, 226
another invasion of Italy is considered, 244
Alexander VI has long-term aim of alliance with, 244
invasion cancelled, 256, 257
and Savonarola’s letter to rulers, 300–1, 304
close ties with Florence re-established, 269
and policies of Medici queens, 370
brief references, 239, 267
see also Charles VIII, King of France; Paris
Francesco da Puglia, Fra, 304–5, 306–7, 308, 310
Franciscans, 240, 264, 304, 305, 307, 310, 317, 318, 319, 320, 339
Frateschi, 230
French, the see France/the French
French Revolution, 370
Freud, Sigmund, 86
Galileo, 314
Genazzano, Fra Mariano da see Mariano da Genazzano, Fra
Genesis, Book of, 46, 142, 179–80
Geneva–Lyons branch of Medici bank, 77 see also Lyons branch of Medici bank
Genoa, 29, 65, 95, 177, 178
Germany, 229, 304
Giovanni, Ser, 213, 214
gonfaloniere, 4, 11, 21, 27, 37, 103, 130, 173, 174, 212, 215, 262, 298, 347
Bartoli in position of, 279, 282–3, 286
Capponi in position of, 187, 189–90, 202, 203 206–7
Del Nero i
n position of, 268–9, 270–1, 272
Popoleschi in position of, 298, 307, 316, 330, 348
Salviati in position of, 288
Valori in position of, 267, 268
Gonzaga family, 52
Great Council, 215–16, 217, 223, 231, 232, 246, 254, 268, 282, 289, 333, 338, 340, 343, 369
Great Hall (hall of the Great Council), Florence, 231–2, 254 and n, 340, 360
Great Schism, 278 and n, 303
Greece, 50
Guarino, Battista, 40, 42, 43, 52, 70
Guasconi, Giovanni, 303, 348
Guicciardini, Francesco
on Florence, 64–5
on Lorenzo the Magnificent’s respect for Savonarola, 104
on omens around time of Lorenzo’s death, 128
recognizes that Lorenzo’s death marks end of an era, 129
and Lorenzo’s funeral, 130
on Ludovico Sforza’s misgivings, 183
on the death of Gian Galeazzo Sforza, 184
on Charles VIII’s appearance, 200
on plans concerning government of Florence, 211
and fears among people of Florence, 212
on arrest of Miniati and his cronies, 212
on the fate of Ser Giovanni, 213
on collection of alms, 213
on Valori, 268, 284
on arguments after arrival of papal Briefs demanding Savonarola’s silence, 296, 297
on Savonarola’s sermon about ordeal by fire, 312
on Savonarola’s execution, 362, 365
brief references, 67, 131, 175, 189, 361n
Guicciardini, Niccolò, 132
Guicciardini, Piero, 284 and n
Guigni, Filippo, 309
Guinea coast, 78
Hannibal, 177
Holy League, 220, 221, 230, 244, 255, 264, 265, 267, 276, 292, 295, 300
Hosea, 168
Hôtel Bladelin, Bruges, 78
humanism, 5–6, 43, 52, 69, 87, 149
Hungary, 300, 304
King of, 4
Imola, 32
Indian Ocean, 5
Inghirami, Baldo, 324
Innocent VIII, Pope
election, 75
corruption, 73–4
Lorenzo the Magnificent wants to become ally of, 75
Lorenzo sends Piero at head of Florentine delegation to, 75–6
Lorenzo cements alliance with, 3
and Lorenzo’s efforts to advance Giovanni’s career in the Church, 76, 79–80, 92, 93, 94, 115, 116, 118
and Pico della Mirandola, 88–9, 90, 93, 122
Savonarola’s prediction about death of, 114, 134
death, 133, 157
brief references, 4, 65, 151
Inquisition, 48, 334, 335n
Iran, 370
Isabella, Queen of Castile, 304
Isabella of Naples, 167, 168
Isaiah, Book of, 144
Islam, 51
Italy
volatile political situation, 49, 50–1
ending of medieval era in, 60