The Mahabharata

by Bibek Debroy

  ‘Yudhishthira asked, “A person whom one has not met before, a learned person, a person who is related through marriage, an ascetic and a person who is devoted to sacrifices—why are these regarded as worthy recipients of a gift?”

  ‘Bhishma replied, “Noble lineage, devotion to tasks, learning, non-violence, modesty, uprightness and truthfulness—the foremost recipients possess at least three of these attributes.1178 O Partha! Listen to the views of four energetic ones—the earth, Kashyapa, Agni and Markandeya.

  ‘“The earth said, ‘When a stone is flung into the great ocean, it is destroyed because of that act of flinging. In that way, all evil conduct is destroyed in three kinds of conduct.’1179

  ‘“Kashyapa said, ‘O king! All the Vedas and the six Vedangas, sankhya, the Puranas and noble birth—if a man deviates from good conduct, none of these can save him from destruction.’

  ‘“Agni said, ‘There may be a person who studies and thinks himself to be learned. He may use his learning to destroy the fame of others. Such a brahmana acts as if he has killed a brahmana. All the worlds are destroyed for him.’

  ‘“Markandeya said, ‘If one thousand horse sacrifices and truth are weighed on a pair of scales, I do not know whether truth will weigh one and a half times the other.’”

  ‘Bhishma said, “Having said this, those four infinitely energetic ones, the earth, Kashyapa, Agni and Bhargava, with his excellent weapons, quickly went away.”1180

  ‘Yudhishthira asked, “In this world, there may be a brahmana who follows vows. In order to please brahmanas, if offerings meant for gods are eaten by such a brahmana, is that regarded as good conduct?”1181

  ‘Bhishma replied, “O Indra among kings! A brahmana may have been instructed and may have become accomplished in the Vedas. However, if he devours what is meant for the brahman, he has deviated from his vows.”

  ‘Yudhishthira said, “O grandfather! Learned ones have said that dharma has many end objectives and many doors. Please tell me what has certainly been determined.”

  ‘Bhishma replied, “O Indra among kings! Non-violence, truth, lack of anger, lack of injury, self-control and uprightness—these are said to be the certain signs of dharma. There are those who praise dharma and roam around the earth. O lord! However, they may be engaged in wicked conduct, amounting to a confusion of dharma. If a person gives gems, gold, cattle or horses to such a person, then the giver remains in hell for ten years, surviving on excrement. This is also the case if one gives to those who eat human fat and flesh, those who live as outcasts outside habitations and those who are confused by anger and confusion and talk about the undesirable acts that others have performed. O Indra among kings! There may be a brahmana who follows brahmacharya. If a person stupidly gives something meant for the Vishvadevas to such a brahmana, he is made to enjoy inauspicious worlds.”

  ‘Yudhishthira asked, “What is superior to brahmacharya? What are the best signs of dharma? What is the best kind of purification? O grandfather! Tell me that.”

  ‘Bhishma replied, “O son! The avoidance of liquor and flesh is superior to brahmacharya. The signs of dharma are adherence to strictures, tranquility and purity.”

  ‘Yudhishthira asked, “When is the time for pursuing dharma? When is the time for pursuing artha? When is the time for being happy? O grandfather! Tell me that.”

  ‘Bhishma replied, “There is a time for pursuing artha and that for pursuing dharma comes after that. It is after this that one should pursue kama. But one must not get attached. One must honour brahmanas and worship seniors. One must treat all creatures in a proper way. One must be mild in conduct and pleasant in speech. In a judicial dispute, one must not utter a lie. When one is brought before a king, one must not be deceitful. One must not behave falsely towards a senior. All these are equal to the sin of killing a brahmana. One should not strike a king, nor should one kill a cow. Anyone who does either commits a sin that is equal to that of killing a foetus. One must not abandon the sacrificial fire. One must not abandon the Vedas. Nor should one attack a brahmana. These sins are equal to the sin of killing a brahmana.”

  ‘Yudhishthira asked, “What kind of brahmanas are good? Who are the ones to whom one should donate, so as to obtain great fruits? Who are the ones who should be fed? O grandfather! Tell me this.”

  ‘Bhishma replied, “Those who are without anger, those who are devoted to dharma, those who are truthful and those who are always self-restrained—these brahmanas are regarded as virtuous. Great fruits are obtained from donating to them. There are those who aren’t insolent, withstand everything, are cheerful in pursuing their objectives, have conquered their senses, are engaged in the welfare of all beings and are friendly. Great fruits are obtained from donating to them. There are those who are without avarice, pure, learned, modest, truthful in speech and engaged in their own tasks. Great fruits are obtained from donating to them. There are bulls among brahmanas who have studied the four Vedas and the six Vedangas and have withdrawn from action. The learned have said that they are the best recipients of gifts. Great fruits are obtained from donating to those who have these kinds of qualities. If one gives to a person with these qualities, the giver’s own qualities are multiplied one thousand times. Even if there is only one single bull among brahmanas who possesses wisdom and learning and good conduct, he is alone capable of saving an entire lineage.1182 One should give cattle, horses, riches, food and other objects to such a person. In that event, one won’t have to grieve after death. Even one brahmana who is excellent is capable of saving an entire lineage. That is the reason one must be selective about choosing the recipient. If one hears that a brahmana who possesses the qualities and is revered by the virtuous lives some distance away, even then, one must honour him and worship him in every possible way.”’

  Chapter 1705(24)

  ‘Yudhishthira asked, “O grandfather! I desire that you should tell me about the time of a funeral ceremony. What have the gods and the rishis ordained about the gods and about dharma?”

  ‘Bhishma replied, “One must perform rites for the gods in the forenoon and those for the ancestors in the afternoon. This must be done after one has made efforts to purify oneself and has completed the recommended auspicious rites. At an appropriate time towards midday, gifts can be made to men. The learned say that the rakshasas obtain a share of anything that is given at the wrong time. Anything left over, anything licked or touched, anything performed that has been preceded by a discord and anything that has been seen by a woman who is in her season—the learned say that the rakshasas obtain a share of these. O descendant of the Bharata lineage! If there has been public proclamation of a gift, if it has been eaten by someone who doesn’t follow vows and if it has been seen or licked by a dog—the learned say that the rakshasas obtain a share of these. If hair or worms are found in food, if someone has sneezed into it, if a dog has looked at it, if drops of tears have fallen into it, or if it is unclean—the learned say that the rakshasas obtain a share in it. O descendant of the Bharata lineage! If food has been tasted by an unworthy person1183 or by someone who is armed and if food has been tasted by an evil-souled person—the learned say that the rakshasas obtain a share in it. If food has been tasted by someone else, or if it has been eaten without offerings first being made to the gods and the ancestors—the learned say that the rakshasas always obtain a share in it. If reprehensible or censured food is offered to the gods and the ancestors, or if it is served with anger—the learned say that they don’t accept it and that the rakshasas obtain a share. O foremost among men! At funeral ceremonies, if the three varnas serve food without mantras and without rites, the learned say that rakshasas obtain a share in it. If food is served without offerings of clarified butter being made first, or if it has been tasted by wicked people earlier, the learned say that the rakshasas obtain a share in it. O bull among the Bharata lineage! I have spoken to you about the shares that have been stated to be for the rakshasas.

  ‘“I will now tell you how one
should determine higher classes of brahmanas. Listen. O king! In rites performed for gods and ancestors, brahmanas who have become outcasts and those who are stupid and mad should never be invited. O king! Nor should one invite and honour one who suffers from white leprosy or leprosy, one who is impotent, one who has been afflicted by tuberculosis, one who suffers from epilepsy or one who is blind. One who is a physician, one who is in a temple, one who practises futile rituals and one who sells soma should never be invited to a funeral ceremony.1184 A king must never invite those who are singers, dancers, acrobats, players of musical instruments, raconteurs and warriors. A king must never invite those who officiate at the sacrifices of vrishalas,1185 teaches vrishalas or become the disciples of vrishalas. O descendant of the Bharata lineage! A brahmana who becomes a teacher or a student because of payment should never be invited to a funeral ceremony. They are sellers of the brahman. Even if a brahmana is foremost and is learned in every possible way, if he marries into an inferior varna, a king should never invite him. A brahmana without a sacrificial fire, one who tends to dead bodies, one who is a thief and one who is an outcaste—a king should never invite such a person. O descendant of the Bharata lineage! One whose earlier antecedents are unknown, one whose tribe is unknown and one who is a putrika-putra should never be invited to a funeral ceremony.1186 A king must never invite a brahmana who earns a living off the interest on loans given to kings, or one who makes a living by selling animals. O bull among the Bharata lineage! A brahmana who was a woman in a former life, one who is the husband of a courtesan, or one who does not perform his meditations, should never be invited to a funeral ceremony. O bull among the Bharata lineage! There are brahmanas who have been recommended for funeral ceremonies and for rites to the gods. They can affectionately give and receive.1187 Listen. O king! If they observe vows, possess qualities, know about the savitri mantra and perform rites, they are capable of being invited, even if they happen to be agriculturists. O son! If a brahmana has been born in a noble lineage, even if he resorts to the dharma of kshatriyas or is a trader, he can be invited to a funeral ceremony. O king! A brahmana who observes the agnihotra sacrifice, resides in a village, is not a thief and tends to guests, can be invited. O bull among the Bharata lineage! O king! One who chants the savitri mantra three times a day, survives by begging for alms and performs the rites can be invited. O king! If a person is rich in the morning and poor in the evening,1188 if he is non-violent and only has minor faults, he can be invited. O bull among the Bharata lineage! O king! If a brahmana is not mean and is not prone to arguing, if he consciously resorts to begging for alms, he can be invited. There may be one who is devoid of vows, deceitful, a thief, a merchant, or a person who earns a living by selling living beings. O king! If he subsequently drinks soma, he can be invited. A person may have earlier earned riches through terrible deeds, or through agriculture. O king! If he subsequently serves the guests, he can be invited. Wealth obtained by selling knowledge, that earned by living off a woman and that earned by living off a eunuch must never be given to the gods and the ancestors. O bull among the Bharata lineage! After a brahmana has officiated at a rite, if he does not speak the words which should be uttered, he commits adharma that is equal to gavanrita.1189 O Yudhishthira! On the day of the new moon, when one has obtained a brahmana, curds, clarified butter and the flesh of wild animals, that is the time for performing a funeral ceremony. When a brahmana’s funeral ceremony has been completed, one must say ‘svadha’. For a kshatriya, one must say, ‘May your ancestors be pleased.’ O descendant of the Bharata lineage! For a vaishya, one must say, ‘May everything be inexhaustible.’ For a shudra, one must say, ‘svasti’. For a brahmana, it is recommended that the sacred word must be pronounced for the gods.1190 In this way, for a kshatriya, words pronounced for the gods must not have the word ‘Om’. For a vaishya, one should say, ‘May the gods be pleased.’

  ‘“Listen to what has been decreed about the rites that must be performed, one after the other. O descendant of the Bharata lineage! Those associated with jatakarma1191 must be performed for all the three varnas. O Yudhishthira! For brahmanas, kshatriyas and vaishyas, these must be performed with the aid of mantras. A brahmana’s girdle must be made out munja grass. For someone belonging to the royal family, it will be made out of hemp.1192 O Yudhishthira! It is dharma that for a vaishya it should be made out of balbajika.1193 O lord! Listen to what is dharma and adharma for the giver and the receiver. If a brahmana utters a lie, that is an act of adharma and he commits a sin. It is said that for a kshatriya, this becomes four times and for a vaishya, it becomes eight times.1194 If a brahmana has earlier been invited by another brahmana, he should not eat anywhere else. If he does so, he becomes inferior and commits adharma that is equal to causing injury to animals.1195 If he eats elsewhere after having first been invited by a king or a vaishya, he becomes inferior and commits a sin that is half of what is committed by causing injury to animals. O king! When a sacrifice is performed for the gods, the ancestors, or brahmanas and the other varnas, if a brahmana eats without having bathed first, he commits the adharma of gavanrita. When a sacrifice is performed for kings, brahmanas and the other varnas, and a brahmana eats there out of greed, knowing himself to be impure,1196 he commits the adharma of gavanrita. O descendant of the Bharata lineage! O Indra among kings! If a person invites someone else to perform a task, because of greed for food or anything else, he is said to commit adharma that is equal to uttering a falsehood. O Yudhishthira! In the three varnas, there may be people who do not observe the vows of the Vedas, are devoid of character and serve without the necessary mantras. They commit adharma that is equal to gavanrita.”

  ‘Yudhishthira asked, “O grandfather! There may be things intended for the ancestors and the gods. To obtain great fruits, whom should one give these to? I wish to hear about this.”

  ‘Bhishma replied, “O Yudhishthira! Just as farmers wait for excellent rains, there are wives who wait for the leftovers, after their husbands have eaten. Feed them.1197 There are kings who possess good character. They are emaciated because their subsistence has suffered. Their wealth has disappeared. Great fruits are obtained by giving to them. O king! There are those who are without food, without homes, without riches and without shelter. When they seek riches, great fruits are obtained by giving to them. O Yudhishthira! There are those who have suffered at the hands of thieves and others and are oppressed by fear. They seek riches so that can obtain food. Great fruits are obtained by giving to them. There are guiltless brahmanas who have made up their minds to beg. When such brahmanas beg, great fruits are obtained by giving to them. There are brahmanas who have lost their possessions and their wives when the country has been flooded. When they desire riches, great fruits are obtained by giving to them. There are learned brahmanas who are mendicants. They resort to rituals and desire riches so that these can be completed. Great fruits are obtained by giving to them. There may be those whose dharma has suffered because of rules enforced by the wicked. Their lives and riches are afflicted. Great fruits are obtained by giving to them. There are innocent people who have been robbed of everything by those who are stronger. They desire some food. Great fruits are obtained by giving to them. There may be ascetics who are devoted to austerities and have resorted to begging for sustenance. When they desire some riches, great fruits are obtained by giving to them. O bull among the Bharata lineage! You have heard about what has been decreed concerning the great fruits from giving.

  ‘“Now hear about what makes one go to hell and what makes one go to heaven. Those who seize other people’s wives, those who oppress other people’s wives and those who have intercourse with other people’s wives go to hell. Those who seize other people’s property, those who destroy other people’s possessions and those who point out the weaknesses of others go to hell. O descendant of the Bharata lineage! Men who destroy stores of drinking water, assembly houses, roads and apartments go to hell. Men who deceive women without protectors and those who are young, age
d, terrified and ascetics, go to hell. O descendant of the Bharata lineage! Those who destroy means of sustenance for others, or their homes or wives, those who destroy other people’s hopes and those who cause dissension among friends go to hell. Those who proclaim the weaknesses of others, those who destroy bridges, those who earn a living off others and those who are ungrateful towards friends go to hell. Those who are heretical and censure,1198 those who censure the ordinances and those who deviate from their beliefs go to hell. Those who cause divisions and take away the shares of those who have accomplished their tasks and are waiting go to hell.1199 Those who eat without giving shares to wives, fires, servants and guests and those who deviate from making offerings to ancestors and gods go to hell. Those who sell the Vedas,1200 those who censure the Vedas and those who render the Vedas in writing go to hell. Men who are outside the four ashramas, outside the boundaries of learning and survive through perverse deeds go to hell. O king! Those who sell hair, those who sell poison and those who sell milk go to hell. O Yudhishthira! Those who cause obstructions in the tasks of brahmanas, cattle and women go to hell. O Yudhishthira! Those who sell weapons and make them and those who make stakes and bows go to hell. O bull among the Bharata lineage! Those who cause obstructions along roads, using stakes, pits and holes, go to hell. O bull among the Bharata lineage! Those who abandon preceptors, servants and followers without any valid reason go to hell. Those who make under-age animals work, pierce their noses and tether them go to hell. Having accepted one-sixth of the produce as taxes, those who do not protect, despite being capable, go to hell.1201 There are people who are forgiving, self-controllled and wise. Despite having associated with such people for a long time, if a person discards them when they are no longer of any use, he goes to hell. Men who eat first, without giving to children, the aged and servants go to hell. All these who have thus been named go to hell. O bull among the Bharata lineage! I will now tell you about the various categories that go to the world of heaven.