51. See Horwitz, book review, 27 BUFFALO L. REV. 47 (1978) (reviewing G. GILMORE, THE AGES OF AMERICAN LAW (Yale Univ. Press 1977).
52. See Cohen, supra note 39 at 215-16; Cohen, supra note 40; Oliphant, A Return to Stare Decisis (pts. 1 & z), 14 A.B.A. J. 71, 159 (1928); Radin, Case Law and Stare Decisis: Concerning Priijudizienrecht in Amerika, 33 COLUM. L. REV. 199 (1933)•
53. R. Rantoul, Oration at Scituate, in MEMOIRS, SPEECHES AND WRITINGS OF ROBERT RANTOUL, JR. 278 (L. Hamilton ed., J. P. Jewett 1854).
54. See Story, Law, Legislation, and Codes, in J. MCCLELLAN, JOSEPH STORY AND THE AMERICAN CONSTITUTION 350 (Univ. of Oklahoma Press 1971).
55. See supra ch. 5.
56. International News Service v. Associated Press, 248 U.S. 215 (1918).
57. Id. at 246 (Holmes, J., concurring).
58. Id. at 250, 262-63, 267 (Brandeis, J., dissenting).
59• The concept of the bipolar lawsuit comes from Chayes, Public Law Litigation and the Burger Court, 96 HARV. L. REV. 4 (1982).
6o. 248 U.S. at 248 (Holmes, J., concurring).
61. Warren & Brandeis, The Right to Privacy, 4 HARV. L. REV. 193 (189o).
6z. See Horwitz, supra note 51.
63. See generally The PubliclPrivate Distinction, 130 U. PA. L. REV. 1289 (1982).
64. Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 518, 666 (1819) Story J., concurring).
65. See M. HORWITZ, supra note 2, at 259-61.
66. See The Civil Rights cases, 109 U.S. 3 (1883).
67. See supra ch. 1.
68. See supra ch. 4.
69. Munn v. Illinois, 94 U.S. 113 (1877). See Seheiber, The Road to Munn: Eminent Domain and the Concept of Public Purpose in the State Courts, 5 PERSP. AM. HIST. 329 (1971).
70. See N. COTT, THE BONDS OF WOMANHOOD: "WOMAN'S SPHERE" IN NEW ENGLAND, 1780-1835, at 61-62, 199 (Yale Univ. Press 1977).
71. See C. LASCH, HAVEN IN A HEARTLESS WORLD: THE FAMILY BESIEGED (Basic Books 1977); E. ZARETSKY, CAPITALISM, THE FAMILY & PERSONAL LIFE (Harper & Row 1976).
72. See B. BLEDSTEIN, THE CULTURE OF PROFESSIONALISM (W. W. Norton 1976).
73. See supra ch. 3.
74. Cohen, The Basis of Contract, 46 Harv. L. Rev. 553 (1933).
75. 334 U.S. 1 (1948).
76. See Henkin, Shelley v. Kraemer: Notes for a Revised Opinion, 11o U. PA. L. REV. 473 (1962).
77. See R. HIMMELBERG, THE ORIGINS OF THE NATIONAL RECOVERY ADMINISTRATION: BUSINESS, GOVERNMENT, AND THE TRADE ASSOCIATION ISSUE, 1921-1933 (Fordham Univ. Press 1976); Galambos, The Emerging Organizational Synthesis in Modern American History, 44 Bus. HIST. REV. 279 (1970); Galambos, Technology, Political Economy, and Professionalization: Central Themes of the Organizational Synthesis, 57 Bus. HIST. REV. 471. (1983); Hawley, Herbert Hoover, the Commerce Secretariat, and the Vision of an 'Associative State,' 1921-1928, 61 J. AM. HIST. 116 (1974); Hawley, Three Facets of Hooverian Associationalism: Lumber, Aviation, and Movies, 1921-1930, in REGULATION IN PERSPECTIVE 95 (T. McCraw ed., Harvard Univ. Press 1981).
78. See Frug, The City as a Legal Concept, 93 HARV. L. REV. 1057, 1075-76 (1980).
79. See supra ch. 3.
8o. See E. HAWLEY, THE NEW DEAL AND THE PROBLEM OF MONOPOLY (Princeton Univ. Press 1966). D. BRAND, CORPORATISM AND THE RULE OF LAW: A STUDY OF THE NATIONAL RECOVERY ADMINISTRATION 25-27, 63-68, 143, 157-58 (Cornell Univ. Press 1988), revises Hawley's interpretation.
81. Carter v. Carter Coal Co., 298 U.S. 238 (1936).
82. Jaffe, Law Making by Private Groups, 51 HARV. L. REV. 201 (1937).
83. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, 295 U.S. 495 (1935).
84. See supra note 8o.
85. zo8 U.S. 412 (1go8).
86. There were, in addition, fifteen pages of excerpts from state and foreign laws limiting women's hours. See P. STRUM, LOUIS D. BRANDEIS: JUSTICE FOR THE PEOPLE 121 (Harvard Univ. Press 1984).
87. On the alliance between the social sciences and the legal reform movement, see L. KALMAN, LEGAL REALISM AT YALE, 1927-1960 (Univ. of North Carolina Press 1986); Ross, The Development of the Social Sciences, in THE ORGANIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE IN MODERN AMERICA, 1860-1920, at 107 (A. Oleson & J. Voss eds., Johns Hopkins Univ. Press 1979); E. FITZPATRICK, ENDLESS CRUSADE: WOMEN SOCIAL SCIENTISTS AND PROGRESSIVE REFORM (Oxford Univ. Press 199o); Schlegel, American Legal Realism and Empirical Social Science: From the Yale Experience, 28 BUFFALO L. REV. 459 (1979); Schlegel, American Legal Realism and Empirical Social Science: The Singular Case of Underhill Moore, 29 BUFFALO L. REV. 195 (1980) [hereafter Schlegel, Underhill Moore.]
88. The critical group includes Robert Hale, Roscoe Pound, John Dewey, and both Felix and Morris Cohen, while what might be described as the constructive group includes figures like Charles Clark, Underhill Moore, and Hessel Yntema. See L. KALMAN, supra note 87, at 20.
89. See P. Novicx, supra note 37, at 133-54•
9o. This is particularly true of Oliphant and Yntema. See L. KALMAN, supra note 87, at 20-21, 32-33, 241 n. 85.
91. Llewellyn, Some Realism About Realism-Responding to Dean Pound, 44 HARV. L. REV. 1222, 1236 (1931) (emphasis retained).
92. See infra ch. 8.
93. Max Weber in 1918 made the classical statement on the ideology of professional expertise and the distancing of social science from the ethical. See M. WEBER, Science as a Solution, in FROM MAX WEBER (H. Gerth & C. W. Mills eds., Oxford Univ. Press 1946); see also M. WEBER, THE METHODOLOGY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES (E. Shils & H. Finch eds., Free Press 1949). [hereafter M. WEBER, METHODOLOGY]. On the development of a similar ideology in the United States, See B. BLEDSTEIN, supra note 72; M. BULMER, THE CHICAGO SCHOOL OF SOCIOLOGY (Univ. of Chicago Press 1984); R. FRIEDRICHS, A SOCIOLOGY OF SOCIOLOGY (Free Press 1970); M. FURNER, ADVOCACY AND OBJECTIVITY: A CRISIS IN THE PROFESSIONALIZATION OF AMERICAN SOCIAL SCIENCE, 1865-1905 (Univ. Press of Kentucky 1975); T. HASKELL, THE EMERGENCE OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIAL SCIENCE (Univ. of Illinois Press 1977); B. KUKLICK, supra note 7; F. MATTHEWS, QUEST FOR AN AMERICAN SOCIOLOGY: ROBERT E. PARK AND THE CHICAGO SCHOOL (McGill-Queens Univ. Press 1977); E. PURCELL, THE CRISIS OF DEMOCRATIC THEORY: SCIENTIFIC NATURALISM AND THE PROBLEM OF VALUE (Univ. Press of Kentucky 1973); Ross, supra note 87.
94. See L. KALMAN, supra note 87, at 30-35. Llewellyn himself said, "I read all the results, but I never dug out what most of the counting was for." Quoted in id. at 33.
95• See Schlegel, Underhill Moore, supra note 87; L. KALMAN, supra note 87, at 97 205, 212-15; Clark & Trubek, The Creative Role of the Judge: Restraint and Freedom in the Common Law Tradition, 71 YALE L. J. 255 (1961); Trubek, Where the Action Is: Critical Legal Studies and Empiricism, 36 STAN. L. REV. 575, 595-6o9. (1984).
96. On logical positivism see A. JANIK & S. TOULMIN, WITTGENSTEIN'S VIENNA (Simon & Schuster 1973); LOGICAL POSITIVISM (A. J. Ayer ed., Free Press 1959). On ethical positivism, see M. WEBER, METHODOLOGY, supra note 93, and his famous lecture, M. WEBER, Science as a Vocation, in FROM MAX WEBER, supra note 93, at 129. On legal positivism, see O. W. HOLMES, The Path of the Law, in COLLECTED LEGAL PAPERS 167 (Harcourt, Brace & Howe 19zo); Howe, The Positivism of Mr. Justice Holmes, 64 HARV. L. REV. 529 (1951); H. KELSEN, PURE THEORY OF LAW (M. Knight trans., Univ of Chicago Press 1967). Perhaps a more comprehensive distinction than that among logical, ethical, and legal positivism is Novick's distinction between "cognitive" and "value" skepticism. See P. NovIcK, supra note 37, at 157, 282.
97. See supra ch. 4.
98. On the concern about justifying values either by science or by religion, see H. HOVENKAMP, SCIENCE AND RELIGION IN AMERICA, 18oo-186o (Univ. of Pennsylvania Press 1978); H. MAY, THE END OF AMERICAN INNOCENCE (Knopf 1959); E. PURCELL, supra note 93; Hovenkamp, Evolutionary Models, supra note 3.
99. See O. W. HOLMES, supra note 96, at 187.
100. Fuller, supra note 50, at 461.
101. Id.
102. Id.
103. Id. at 451. Perhaps Morris Cohen needs to be credited with making Fuller's point three years earlier.
/> It is the essence of positivism to view the law exclusively as uniformities of existing behavior, in total disregard of any ideals as to what should be. This, however, cannot but result in an unavowed natural law in which habit and inertia become the absolute norm or rule. Behavioristic theories are thus bound, if consistently carried out, to end where our old conservative natural-law theories did.
Cohen, supra note 47, at 360.
104. See, e.g., Danzig, A Comment on the Jurisprudence of the Uniform Commercial Code, 27 STAN. L. REV. 621 (1975); but see Wiseman, The Limits of Vision: Karl Llewellyn and the Merchant Rules, 10o HARV. L. REV. 465 (1987)-
Chapter 8
1. Jones v. Securities & Exch. Comm'n, 298 U.S. 1, 28 (1936).
2. Id. at 23.
3. J. LANDIS, THE ADMINISTRATIVE PROCESS 139 (Yale Univ. Press 1938).
4. 298 U.S. at 23.
5. Id. at 23-24.
6. J. LANDIS, supra note 3, at 139.
7. Id. at 140.
8. Id. at 142.
q. Id.
lo. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, 245 U.S. 495 (1935). See E. HAWLEY, THE NEW DEAL AND THE PROBLEM OF MONOPOLY (Princeton Univ. Press 1966).; A. SCHLESINGER JR., THE AGE OF ROOSEVELT: THE NEW DEAL IN ACTION, 1933-1937 (Macmillan 1958).
i 1. J. LANDIS, supra note 3, at 140.
12. Id. at 141.
13. Id.
14. Id.
15. Id. at 4-5.
16. Id. at 30.
17. Id. at 31.
18. Id.
19. Id.
20. Id. at 32-33
21. Id. at 33-34.
22. Id. at 34.
23. Id. at 36.
24. Id.
25. Id. at 35.
z6. Id. at 41.
27. Id. at 33.
28. Id.
29. Id. at 23.
30. Id. at 24.
31. See Stewart, The Reformation of American Administrative Law, 88 HARV. L. REV. 1667 (1975); T. Lowl, THE END OF LIBERALISM (W. W. Norton 1969).
32. See F. GOODNOW, THE PRINCIPLES OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE LAW OF THE UNITED STATES 1-7, 66-68, (G. P. Putnam's Sons 1905); Weber, The Presuppositions and Causes of Bureaucracy, in READER IN BUREAUCRACY (R. Merton ed., Free Press 1952).
33. J. LANDIS, supra note 3, at 68-69.
34. Id. at 69 (emphasis supplied).
35. Id. at 1z.
36. Id. at 72.
37• Id. at 75.
38. Id.
39. Id. at 69.
40. Pound, The Causes of Popular Dissatisfaction with the Administration of Justice, 4o AM. L. REV. 729 (1906).
41. Pound, Mechanical Jurisprudence, 8 COLUM. L. REV. 605 (1908).
42. Pound, Justice According to Law, 14 COLUM. L. REV. 1, 25 (1914).
43. Pound, The Growth of Administrative Justice, 2 Wis. L. REV. 321 (1924).
44. Id. at 330-31.
45. Id. at 331.
46. Id. at 329.
47. Id. at 331-32.
48. Id. at 331.
49. Id. at 332.
50. Id.
51. Id. at 336.
52. Id. at 333.
53• Id.
54. Id. at 339.
55• Id. at 330.
56. Id. at 334.
57. Id.
58. J. LANDIS, supra note 3, at 141.
59. Pound, Report of the Special Committee on Administrative Law, 63 REP. AM. B. Ass'N (1938) [hereafter Pound Committee Report].
6o. J. FRANK, IF MEN WERE ANGELS 338 (1st ed., Harper 1942).
61. Pound Committee Report, supra note 59, at 339.
62. Id. at 343.
63. Id. at 340.
64. Cohen, Transcendental Nonsense and the Functional Approach, 35 COLUM. L. REV. 809, 833 (1935)•
65. Pound Committee Report, supra note 59, at 340-
66. Id. at 343.
67. Id. (citing Landis, Business Policy and the Courts, 27 YALE. REV. 235, 237 (1938))•
68. Pound Committee Report, supra note 59, at 343.
69. Id. at 344.
70. Pound, Do We Need a Philosophy of Law?, 5 COLUM. L. REV. 339, 352 (1905).
71. Pound, supra note 42, at 13.
72. D. WIGDOR, ROSCOE POUND: PHILOSOPHER OF LAW 270 (Greenwood Press 1974).
73. Id. at 271.
74. Id. at 263.
75. Id.
76. See C. GOETSCH, Simeon E. Baldwin's 1910 Controversy With Theodore Roosevelt Over the Federal Employer's Liability Act, in ESSAYS ON SIMEON E. BALDWIN 82-185 (Univ. of Connecticut School of Law Press 1981). See also J. WEINSTEIN, Leadership in Social Reform: Workmen's Compensation, in THE CORPORATE IDEAL IN THE LIBERAL STATE, 1goo- 1918, at 40-61 (Beacon Press 1968).
77. S. SKOWRONEK, BUILDING A NEW AMERICAN STATE: THE EXPANSION OF NATIONAL ADMINISTRATIVE CAPACITIES, 1877-1920, at 6 (Cambridge Univ. Press 1982).
78. Id. at 8.
79. Id. at 27.
8o. Id. at 28.
81. Id. at 13.
82. See T. McCRAw, PROPHETS OF REGULATION (Harvard Univ. Press 1984); W. CHASE, THE AMERICAN LAW SCHOOL AND THE RISE OF ADMINISTRATIVE GOVERNMENT (Univ. of Wisconsin Press 1982).
83. See J. MASHAW, BUREAUCRATIC JUSTICE: MANAGING SOCIAL SECURITY DISABILITY CLAIMS (Yale Univ. Press 1983).
84. See M. SKLAR, THE CORPORATE RECONSTRUCTION OF AMERICAN CAPITALISM. 18901916 (Cambridge Univ. Press. 1988).
85. 245 U.S. 495 (1935). But see Industrial Union Dep't, AFL-CIO v. American Petroleum Inst., 448 U.S. 607, 671-88 (1980) (Rehnquist, J., concurring). All the justices agreed that at some point a delegation would become invalid.
86. J. DICKINSON, ADMINISTRATIVE JUSTICE AND THE SUPREMACY OF LAW IN TILE UNITED STATES 215 (Harvard Univ. Press 1927).
87. Id. at 216.
88. See C. EDLEY, ADMINISTRATIVE LAW: RETHINKING JUDICIAL CONTROL OF BUREAUCRACY 14, 67-68 (Yale Univ. Press 199o). See generally Frug, The Ideology of Bureaucracy in American Law, 97 HARV. L. REV. 1277, 1286-92, 1318-34 (1984).
89. F. GOODNOW, supra, note 32, at 8.
9o. Id. at 68. See generally W. NELSON, The Quest for a Scientific Morality, in THE ROOTS OF AMERICAN BUREAUCRACY, 1830-19oo, at 82-112 (Harvard Univ. Press 1982).
91. See W. NELSON, supra note 9o, at 119-33; L. WHITE, REPUBLICAN ERA, 18691901: A STUDY IN ADMINISTRATIVE HISTORY (Macmillan 1958); on Goodnow see Konefsky, Men of Great and Little Faith: Generations of Constitutional Scholars, 3o BUFF. L. REV. 365 (1981).
92. See A. M. EDWARDS, COMPARATIVE OCCUPATION STATISTICS FOR THE UNITED STATES, 1870-1940, at I I I (G.P.O. 1943).
93. See E. DURKHEIM, PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND CIVIC MORALS (C. Brookfield trans. Free Press 1958). The translation derives from "the sole text of a final draft" of Durkheim's lectures delivered between 1898 and 1900. Id. at x.
94• See Grey, Langdell's Orthodoxy, 45 U. PITT. L. REV. 1 (1983); P. NovICK, THAT NOBLE DREAM: THE "OBJECTIVITY QUESTION" AND THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL PROFESSION 47-60 (Cambridge Univ. Press 1988); Chase, The Birth of the Modern Law School, 23 AM. J. LEGAL HIST. 329 (1979).
95. See E. PURCELL, THE CRISIS OF DEMOCRATIC THEORY: SCIENTIFIC NATURALISM AND THE PROBLEM OF VALUE (Univ. Press of Kentucky 1973); D. Ross, ORIGINS OF AMERICAN SOCIAL SCIENCE (Cambridge Univ. Press 1990).
96. A. V. DICEY, LECTURES INTRODUCTORY TO THE STUDY OF THE LAW OF THE CONSTITUTION (1st ed., Macmillan 1885).
97. Id. at 215.
98. Id. at 187.
99. Id. at 192.
loo. Id. at 215.
1o1. R. COSGROVE, THE RULE OF LAW: ALBERT VENN DICEY, VICTORIAN JURIST 94 (Univ. of North Carolina Press 1980). Sugarman, Book review, 46 MODERN L. REV. 102 (1983).
102. H. W. R. WADE, ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 7 (3d ed, Clarendon Press 1971).
103. S. A. DESMITH, JUDICIAL REVIEW OF ADMINISTRATIVE ACTION 5 (2d ed., Stevens 1968).
104. A. V. DICEY, LECTURES ON THE RELATION BETWEEN LAW AND PUBLIC OPINION IN ENGLAND DURING THE. NINETEENTH CENTURY (Macmillan 1905).
105. See L. T. HOBHOUSE, LIBERALISM (H. Holt 1911); G. RUGGIERO, THE
HISTORY OF EUROPEAN LIBERALISM (R. Collingwood trans., Oxford Univ. Press 1927); T. H. GREEN, Lecture on Liberal Legislation and Freedom of Contract, in 3 WORKS 365 (R. Nettleship 3d ed., Longmans, Green 19oo).
106. COSGROVE, supra note 101, at 193.
107. Id.
1o8. G. HEWART, THE NEW DESPOTISM 8 (E. Benn 1929).
109. Id. at 35.
110. Id. at 30.
111. Id. at 39.
112. Id. at 43.
113. Id. at 44.
114. Id. at 45.
115. Id. at 21-22.
116. Pound, Individualization of Justice, 7 FORDHAM L. REV. 153 (1938).
117. Id. at 161.
118. F. HAYEK, THE ROAD TO SERFDOM 2-4 (Univ. of Chicago Press 1944).
119. Id.
120. Id. at 41-42.
1z1. Id. at 72-87.
122. Id.
123. Id. at 72.
124. Id. at 73
125. Id.
126. Id. at 73-74.
127. Id. at 78.
128. Id. at 79.
129. Id. at 74.
130. Id. at 78.
131. See id. at 82.
132. Id. at 78.
133. 5 U.S.C. SS551 et seq.
134. Universal Camera Corp. v. NLRB, 340 U.S. 474, 482 (1951).
135. Verkuil, The Emerging Concept of Administrative Procedure, 78 COLUM. L. REV. 258, 272 (1978), (quoting the President's veto message, 86 CONG. REC. 13,943 (1940) [hereafter Veto Message], which in turn quoted from ASSOCIATION OF THE BAR OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK, REPORT OF THE COMMITTEES ON ADMINISTRATIVE LAW AND FEDERAL LEGISLATION).
136. Id. at 271.
137. Id. at 273 (quoting Veto Message, supra note 135, at 13,942-43).
138. Id. (quoting Veto Message, supra note 135, at 13,943).
139. Id. at 274.
140. Id. at 275 (quoting THE PUBLIC PAPERS AND ADDRESSES OF FRANKLIN DELANO ROo5EVELT-194o, at 622 (S. Rosenman ed., Macmillan 1941).
141. Id. at 277.
142. Id. at 276.
143. Id. at 277.
144. Id. at 277 n. 97-
145. See E. RYERSON, THE BEST-LAID PLANS: AMERICA'S JUVENILE COURT EXPERIMENT (Hill & Wang 1978). As Ellen Fitzpatrick points out in ENDLESS CRUSADE: WOMEN SOCIAL SCIENTISTS AND PROGRESSIVE REFORM 97-101 (Oxford Univ. Press 199o), crime was attributed to an array of evils in the social environment. Sophonisba Breckinridge and Edith Abbott, in their study of delinquent children handled by Chicago's juvenile court, hoped to enhance the courts' understanding of children and provide them with more knowledge about children under stress by conducting exhaustive social scientific research. Id. at 18387.
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