Little Soldiers

by Lenora Chu

  Crozier, Justin. “Chinese Imperial Examination System.” China in Focus (2002).

  Decisions of the National Language Committee, the National Education Committee and Ministry of Radio, Film and Television on the Test of Mandarin Level. October 30, 1994.

  Elman, Benjamin A. “Political, Social, and Cultural Reproduction via Civil Service Examinations in Late Imperial China.” Journal of Asian Studies 50:1 (1991), 7–28.

  Fan Guangji. “The Historical Evolution of China’s College Entrance Examination System and Its Revelation to the Reform of Modern College Entrance Examinations.” Fujian Education College Newspaper (June 2011).

  Liu Fang. “Students Admitted to Vocational Schools Occupied 44.12% of the Total Number in the High School Recruitment Period in 2014.” September 16, 2015.

  Min Huang. “Xiaogan High School Put 12th Grade Students on a Drip to Supplement Energy.” Changjiang Times, June 6, 2012.

  Ministry of Education of the PRC. “Statistics on the Number of Gaokao Participants and Those Admitted over the Years.” Posted on People’s Daily online, May 3, 2013.

  ———. “Overview of Chinese Education.” November 25, 2015.

  Miyazaki, Ichisada. China’s Examination Hell: The Civil Service Examinations of Imperial China. Yale University Press, 1981.

  Sina Education. “Ranking of Yiben Admission Rate of All Provinces, Beijing, Tianjin and Shanghai Top the Chart.” Posted on Sina.com, December 25, 2015.

  Song Chunpeng. “The Double-Edged Sword of Traditional Culture and Scientific Innovations—Some Thoughts on the Talent Development of Universities.” Posted on the Ministry of Education of the PRC website, April 24, 2008.

  Suen, H. K. “The Hidden Cost of Education Fever: Consequences of the Keju-Driven Education Fever in Ancient China.” Translated by Ki-soo Kim. Ha-woo Publishing Co., 2005.

  ww123 Forum. “Parent in Shanghai.” April 23, 2014.

  Xinhua News Agency. “In 2014 the Country 9.39 Million Candidates to Participate in College Entrance Examination.” Posted on moe.gov.cn, June 4, 2014.

  Chapter 6: The High Price of Tests

  Interviews include Cong Qianzhen, Kang Jian, Li Jiacheng, Liu Jian, Li Qiong, Tiehui Weng, Wang Feng, Xu Jiandong, Yang Dongping, Yang Linqiong.

  Chai Wei and Xiang Qianyun, “China’s ‘PISA’—Unveiling China’s Educational Assessment System.” Posted on China Education Daily, April 16, 2015.

  Chongqing Morning News. “Chongmin Luo Delivered Speech in Southwest University: Last Year in Middle and High School Waste a Lot of Time.” Posted on Xinhuanet.com, May 5, 2012.

  Du, Feijin et al. “Heavy Burden on Students Has Become the Pain of the Nation.” People’s Daily, August 2, 2013.

  Dukes, Richard, and Heather Albanesi. “Seeing Red: Quality of an Essay, Color of the Grading Pen, and Student Reactions to the Grading Process.” Social Science Journal 50 (2013), 96–100.

  Feng Jianjun. “Examination-Oriented Education Wears Down Student’s Personality.” Posted on China Education News Network website, April 21, 2015;

  Guangming Daily. “Primary and Middle School ‘Jianfu’ Report Published.” Posted on Xinhua News online, May 31, 2013.

  Gu Mingyuan. “Interest Is the Biggest Drive of Study.” Posted on qq.com, August 15, 2014, http://edu.qq.com/a/20140815/015290.htm.

  He Yingchun. “Reflection on ‘Fudan Poisoning Case’: We Need to Learn to Forgive.” Posted on people.com, February 18, 2014.

  Ji Lin. “Wei Yu: Socio-Emotional Competency Will Affect Children for the Lifetime,” Shanghai Education News, April 28, 2013.

  Liang Jianmin, et al. “Zheng Yefu: Primary and Middle School Education Is Killing Creativity.” Information Times, October 9, 2013.

  Li Jimei and Feng Xiaoxia. Interpretation of Guideline of Children’s Learning and Development for 3- to 6-year-old Children, People’s Education Press, 2013.

  Liu Shiyu. “Ni Minjing: The Meaning of PISA Test Is to Enlighten the Evaluation Reform.” Shanghai Education News, December 19, 2013.

  Luo Yangjia, Shanghai Education. “Shanghai Student’s Top Performance in PISA Evokes Thinking.” Posted on Xinhuanet.com, March 17, 2011.

  Ma Bei Bei. “National Physique Evaluation: Chinese Youth’s Physique Has Decreased for 10 Years.” China Youth Daily, March 30, 2010.

  Ministry of Education of the PRC, Department of Basic Education. Interpretation of Kindergarten Education Guidelines. Phoenix Education Publishing, 2002, repr. 2012.

  ———. “Guidance on Current Efforts to Strengthen the Management of Primary and Secondary Schools.” April 22, 2009.

  ———. “National Outline for Medium and Long-term Education Reform and Development (2010-2020).” July 2010.

  ———. “On the Prevention and Correction of Preschool ‘Elementary-School-ization.’” December 28, 2011.

  ———. Guideline of Children’s Learning and Development for 3- to 6-year-old Children. Capital Normal University Press, 2012.

  ———. “To Solicit Public Opinion on ‘Ten Rules on Burden Relief of Elementary School Students.’” August 22, 2013.

  ———. “Notice of the Issue of Guide of the Establishment of Psychological Room in Middle and High Schools.” July 31, 2015.

  National People’s Congress (NPC). “Education Law of the People’s Republic of China.” Posted on Chinese government portal gov.cn, May 25, 2005.

  Netease Education Channel. “Research of Study Pressure of Chinese Primary and Middle School Students.” November 25, 2015.

  Play Mountain Place website. www.playmountain.org/.

  Pleasance, Chris. “NY Teacher Brands Common Core Reform Child Abuse, Gets Rapturous Applause.” Daily Mail, November 15, 2013.

  Preschool to Primary School Web. “Beijing 2014 Primary School Entrance Exam Collection: Common Sense.” Posted on ysxiao.cn, October 28, 2014.

  Quality Education Research Group. “Common Concern: Quality Education System Research.” Educational Science Publishing House, 2006.

  Ren Jinwen. “Hainan Gaokao Reform Breaks the System of Marks, Gives the Universities Autonomy for Admission.” Haikou Evening News. Posted on Xinhuanet.com, August 5, 2014.

  Ryan, Janette. Education Reform in China: Changing Concepts, Contexts, and Practices. Routledge, 2011.

  Salinas, D. “Does Homework Perpetuate Inequities in Education.” PISA in Focus 12 (2014), 1–4.

  Shanghai Municipal Education Commission. “Several Opinions about Effectively Alleviating the Academic Burden on Schoolchildren.” December 5, 2004.

  ———. “The Notice of the Issue of the Pilot Plan of Shanghai Spring Gaokao in 2017.” November 8, 2016.

  Shanghai Star. “Five Bears Suffer Sulphuric Acid Attack.” Posted on Shanghai Star website, February 28, 2002.

  Sohu.com. “Shanghai Universities Will Consider Normal High School Test, Students Will Select Three Subjects Themselves.” Sohu, January 7, 2016.

  Soong Qing Ling Primary School Readiness Meeting Notes, April 22, 2014.

  Southern Weekly. “Top Controversy: Should the Act of Good Samaritan Justify the Recommendation Admission to the University?” Posted on ifeng.com, June 13, 2014.

  State Council of the CP CCC. “China Education Reform and Development Guidelines.” Posted on Ministry of Education of the PRC website, February 13, 1993.

  ———. “Decision on the Deepening of Education Reform and the Enhancement of Suzhi Education.” General Office of the CPC Central Committee, June 13, 1999.

  ———. “The Implementation of Performance Pay Compulsory School Guidance.” Legislative Affairs Office of the State Council, December 23, 2008.

  ———. “Advice on Deepening the Examination and Admission System Reform.” September 4, 2014.

  ———. “Full List of Practice Certifications for Different Jobs.” Posted on State Council website, December 19, 2016.

  State Education Committee of PRC. “Some Notes about Actively Promoting Quality-Oriented Education.” 1997.

  Tencent Educ
ation. “21st Century Education Research Institute Compulsory Education Stage of Primary and Secondary School Students ‘Lessen the Burden’ Situation Survey.” 21st Century Education Research Institute, May 31, 2013.

  Wang Wei. “PISA Only Tests One Aspect of the Education.” Shanghai Xinmin Evening News, December 5, 2013.

  ———. “Shanghai May Quit the Next PISA Test.” Shanghai Xinmin Evening News, March 7, 2014.

  Wang Xiao Li. “Thoughts on the Change of Burden Relief Policies on Basic Education since the Foundation of the PRC.” Education and Examinations 5 (2009).

  Wang Ying. “9.39 Million Students Took Gaokao in 2014 Nationwide.” Posted on Xinhuanet.com, June 4, 2014.

  Xie Yu et al. “The Report on Civic Development in China 2013.” Peking University Press, September 1, 2013.

  Zhai Zihe. “The Fudan Poisoning Case Sensationalized the Society: Roommates Farewell the Dead in Tears.” Xinhua News, April 17, 2013.

  Zhang Minxuan. “What Caused the Misinterpretation of the PISA Result?” Wenhui Daily. December 16, 2013.

  Zhi Zhi and Huang Yiming. “Student Killer an Introvert Who Finally Cracks.” China Daily, March 17, 2004.

  Chapter 7: Little Soldier

  Interviews include Leland Cogan, Tan Chuanbo, Wang Zheng, William Schmidt, Xie Xiaoqing, Yong Zhao, Zhao Jue.

  Bakken, Børge. The Exemplary Society: Human Improvement, Social Control, and the Dangers of Modernity in China. Oxford University Press, 2000.

  Barboza, David. “Billions in Hidden Riches for Family of Chinese Leader.” New York Times, October 25, 2012.

  Cheung Kwah, Pan S. “Transition of Moral Education in China: Towards Regulated Individualism.” Citizenship Teaching and Learning 2:2 (2006), 37–50.

  China Network. “Evolution of Primary School Textbook over the Past 60 Years.” Posted on China.com.cn, July 11, 2009.

  Communist Party of China. “Rules of the Communist Party of China on the Development of Communist Party Members.” Posted on cpcnews.cn, undated.

  ———. “Relationship between the Communist Party and the Communist Youth League.” Posted on gqt.org.cn, December 29, 2012.

  ———. “Seminar on the Implementation of the Document No. 9 Issued by the General Office of CPC Central Committee,” Posted on the Shanghai University of Political Science and Law website, January 23, 2014.

  Dai Weisen. “Hong Kong Education System Should Be More Patriotic: Chinese Officials.” Posted on Radio Free Asia website, January 8, 2015.

  Darcy. “Walking on the Red Road” letter. Study process at Party school, accessed April 12, 2014.

  Fifth National People’s Congress. “The Regulation of the Young Pioneers of China.” June 3, 2005.

  Forsythe, Michael, and Shai Oster. “Xi Jinping Millionaire Relations Reveal Elite Chinese Fortunes.” Bloomberg News, June 29, 2012.

  Grammes, Tilman. “Nationalism, Patriotism, Citizenship and Beyond: Questioning the Citizenship Industry.” Journal of Social Science Education 10:1 (2011), 2–11.

  Implementation Outline of Patriotism Education. People’s Education Press, 1994.

  Jacobs, Andrew. “Chinese Professor Who Advocated Free Speech Is Fired.” New York Times, December 10, 2013.

  Johnson, Ian. “Learning How to Argue: An Interview with Ran Yunfei.” New York Review of Books, March 2, 2012.

  Jin Hao. “Up to the End of 2015, There Are 88 Million of League Members.” Guangming Daily, May 4, 2016.

  King, Gary, et al. “Reverse-Engineering Censorship in China: Randomized Experimentation and Participant Observation.” Science 6199 (2014), 345: 1–10.

  Kipnis, Andrew B. Governing Educational Desire: Culture, Politics, and Schooling in China. University of Chicago Press, 2011.

  Kondo, Takahiro, and Xiaoyan Wu. “Patriotism as a Goal of School Education in China and Japan.” Journal of Social Science Education 10 (Spring 2011), 1.

  Lee, Wing On, and Chi Hang Ho. “Ideopolitical Shifts and Changes in Moral Education Policy in China.” Journal of Moral Education 34:4 (2005), 413–31.

  Li Lihong. “Promote ‘Big Youth League Committee,’ Welcome the 18th National Congress of the CPC.” China Youth News, October 10, 2010.

  Maosen, Li. “Moral Education in the People’s Republic of China.” Journal of Moral Education 19 (1990), 3.

  ———. “Changing Ideological-Political Orientations in Chinese Moral Education: Some Personal and Professional Reflections.” Journal of Moral Education 40:3 (2011), 387–95.

  Mingjing News. “Gao Yu in Leak Case Sentenced to Seven Years.” Posted on chinaaid.net, April 17, 2015.

  Phillips, Tom. “‘It’s Getting Worse’: China’s Liberal Academics Fear Growing Censorship.” Guardian. August 6, 2015.

  Plan of Nine-Year Compulsory Full-Time Primary School Curriculum and Middle School Curriculum. People’s Education Press, 1992.

  “Practice and Reflection of Developing High School Student Party Members.” Ideological and Theoretical Education 16 (2009), 1.

  Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the CPC. “Patriotism Education Implementation Summary.” People’s Education 10 (1994), 6–9.

  Ran Zhang. “By the End of 2015, There Are 88.758 Million Party Members in China.” Jing Hua, July 1, 2016. Reposted on People.com.

  Seventh National People’s Congress. “The Law of the People’s Republic of China on the National Flag.” October 1,1990.

  Shepherd, Christian. “China Changes Start Date of War with Japan, Says Will Bolster Patriotic Education.” Reuters, January 11, 2017.

  Tsang, Mun. Education and National Development in China Since 1949: Oscillating Policies and Enduring Dilemmas. China Review, 2000.

  Wang, Zheng. “National Humiliation, History Education, and the Politics of Historical Memory: Patriotic Education Campaign in China.” International Studies Quarterly 52 (2008), 783–806.

  Wansheng, Zhan, and Ning Wujie. “The Moral Education Curriculum for Junior High Schools in 21st Century China.” Journal of Moral Education 33 (2004), 4.

  Westheimer, Joel. “Should Social Studies Be Patriotic?” Social Education 73:7 (2009), 316–20.

  Writing Group of High School Ideology and Politics. Textbook of MOE, Ideology and Politics. People’s Education Press, 2013.

  Xinhua News Agency. “Authorized Release: The CPC’s Statistical Communique in 2015.” Posted on Xinhuanet.com, June 30, 2016.

  Zang Xiaowei. “Educational Credentials, Élite Dualism, and Élite Stratification in China.” Sociological Perspectives 44:2 (2001) 189–205.

  Zhao, Yong. Who’s Afraid of the Big Bad Dragon. Jossey-Bass, 2014.

  Zhao Wei. “The First Chinese Lesson.” Procuratorial Daily, August 28, 2015.

  Chapter 8: One Hundred Days ’til Test Time

  Interviews include Guan Yi, Scott Rozelle, Zhang Futao, Zhou Nian Li.

  Chan, Kam Wing. “The Household Registration System and Migrant Labor in China: Notes on a Debate.” Population and Development Review 36:2 (2010), 357–64.

  ———. “China, Internal Migration.” Encyclopedia of Global Migration. Blackwell Publishing, 2013.

  “China’s First Poverty-Alleviation Day. a List of 592 Key Counties of National Poverty Alleviation and Development.” October 17, 2014.

  Dahe.cn. “216 Students in Henan Province Have Been Enrolled by Peking University. about 70% of Gaokao Champions in 18 Cities Have Chosen Peking University. Posted on Dahe.cn, July 21,2016.

  The Economist. “Ending Apartheid, Special Report.” Economist. April 19, 2014.

  ———. “Kaifeng: Down and out in rural China.” Economist, August 23, 2014.

  Li Shi. “Speech about the Gini Coefficient at the China Economic Development Forum 2016.” Posted on Sina.com, November 19, 2016.

  Liu Jinsong. “Peking University Professor: Guangdong and Anhui Students’ Rate of Admission in Peking University Is Only 1 Percent That of Beijing Students.” Economic Observer, June 1, 2012.

  Liu Yaxuan. “The Patriotism in the Tex
tbook of History in Foreign Primary Schools.” Journal of Teaching and Management, May 15, 2012.

  Mao Zedong. On Agriculture Cooperation. From Selected Works of Mao Zedong. People’s Publishing House, 1977: 168–91.

  Ministry of Education of the PRC, Department of Development Planning. China Education Yearbook 2010. People’s Education Press, 2010.

  Pepper, Suzanne. Radicalism and Education Reform in Twentieth-Century China. Cambridge University Press, 1996.

  Peterson, Glen. The Power of Words: Literacy and Revolution in South China, 1949–1995. University of British Columbia Press, 1997.

  Roberts, Dexter. “Chinese Education: The Truth Behind the Boasts.” Bloomberg News, April 5, 2013.

  Rose. “Target Hackathon: Design an App for China Left-behind Children.” Posted on Collective Responsibility, 2017, http://www.coresponsibility.com/target-hackathon-left-behind-children/.

  Ross, Heidi. China Country Study. Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2006, Literacy for Life, 2005.

  Rozelle, Scott. “Caixin Column 2: China’s Inequality Starts during the First 1,000 Days.” Caixin magazine series Inequality 2030 (October 28 2013).

  Seeborg, Michael C., et al. “The New Rural-Urban Labor Mobility in China: Causes and Implications.” Journal of Socio-Economics 29 (2000), 39–56.

  Shirk, Susan L. “Work Experience in Chinese Education.” Comparative Education 14 (1978), 5–18.

  “Tabulation on the 2010 Population Census of The People’s Republic of China.” China Statistics Press.

  21 Century Education Research Institute. “Civil Gaokao Reform Scheme Version 3.0.” Posted on the 21 Century Education Research Institute website, 2014.

  Wu Ce, Pang Zheng. “National Poverty Relief Priority Counties List Released.” Posted on China.com, June 8, 2016.

  Wu Han Evening Newspaper. “The Proportion of Rural College Students Causes Wen Jiabao Concern.” Posted on Sina.com, January 24, 2009.

  Yuan Guiren. “Comprehensively Promote the Scientific Development of National Education Cause.” Posted on MOE website, January 3, 2011.