Little Soldiers

by Lenora Chu

  Zhao, Yaohui. “Labor Migration and Earnings Differences: The Case of Rural China.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 47:4 (1999), 767–82.

  Zhen Yang. “9.02 Million! Latest National Rural Left-behind Children Statistics Published—Why Has the Number Dropped 50 Million?” Posted on Kanka news, November 9, 2012.

  Chapter 9: Shortcuts and Favors

  Baidu Online Forum. “The Initial Gaokao Papers Were Leaked in Hunan 2015.” Posted anonymously, June 24, 2015.

  Bain & Company. “The Rise of the Borderless Consumer.” Luxury Goods Worldwide Market Study, Fall–Winter 2014.

  BBS Online Forum. Post by teacher in Ezhou City, April 17, 2012.

  Central Commission for Discipline Inspection. “Ministry of Education: Paid Afterschool Classes Banned and Hotline for Complaints Published.” July 4, 2015.

  China News Network. “Henan Investigation of College Entrance Examination for the 127 People.” June 18, 2014.

  ———. “Peking University and Tsinghua University Plan to Enroll 353 Students in Beijing 2016.” Reposted on Sina.com, June 20, 2016.

  Fang Zhou. “Can We Have No-Gift Teachers’ Day, Please.” ChinaDaily.com, September 10, 2014.

  Fan Tianjiao. “Several Officials of Education Sector Dismissed for Bribery in Bengbu, Education Equipment Procurement Section Becomes Easy Target for Bribery.” Legal Daily, October 12, 2016.

  Gough, H. G. “A Creative Personality Scale for the Adjective Check List.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37:8 (1979), 1398.

  Gu Yuansen. “Cai Rongsheng, Former Head of Admission and Employment at Renmin University, Was Accused.” Modern Express, October 10, 2015.

  “Heat News: Go Undercover in a Cross Province Group Providing Substitute with the Examinee in Gaokao.” June 7, 2015. Reposted on Sina.com.

  Hou, Ning, et al. “Survey and Regulation on Cheating Behavior of College Students.” Examination Journal 73 (2011).

  Jou, Eric. “Tool for Cheating in China Is Comparable to 007’s.” Reference for the Youth, June 25, 2014.

  Liu, Jintie, et al. “Investigation on University Students’ Cheating in Examinations and Corresponding Countermeasures.” Journal of Liaoning Technical University (Social Science Edition) 14 (2012), 1.

  Moore, Malcolm. “Riot after Chinese Teachers Try to Stop Pupils Cheating.” Telegraph, June 20, 2013.

  Ministry of Education of the PRC. “The Notice of the Issue of Regulations on Prohibiting Teachers Accepting Gifts or Payments from Students and Their Parents by Ministry of Education.” July 8, 2014.

  ———. “Establishing a Sound System of Punishing and Preventing Corruption in Organs and Units Directly Supervised by the Ministry of Education.” Ministry of Education of the PRC, October 14, 2014.

  ———. “Regulations on the Prohibition of School and Teachers Employed to Give After-Class Lessons.” Ministry of Education of the PRC, June 29, 2015.

  ———. “Anti-Corruption in Education System Is Still Tough and Complex.” Posted on Paper.cn, February 27, 2016.

  ———. “Special Campaign by Ministry of Education to Address the Problem of Paid Make-up Class and Teachers Accepting Gifts and Payments against Regulations.” July 26, 2016.

  Ministry of Finance of the PRC. “The Implementation Advice on Regulating the Collection of Fees for Education and Rectifying Unauthorized Collection of Fees for Education in 2015.” June 3, 2015.

  National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China. “The 163rd Clause of the Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China.” 2015.

  ———. “Version 9. Amendment to Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China.” August 29, 2015.

  Nelson, Katie. “Photos of the Day: Hubei School Holds Midterms in Forest to Prevent Cheating.” Shanghaiist, May 3, 2014.

  Ni Zhang. “How Strict Is Gao Kao Exam Discipline This Year?” China News Network, May 25, 2016.

  Shanghai Sheng Xue. “Shanghai High School Ranking Based on Enrolled Number of Students into Local Yiben Universities.” Posted on edu.online.sh.cn, July 8, 2016.

  Strait News. “One Student in Fujian Paid for a Surrogate Exam-Taker for Gaokao; Both Were Jailed.” July 28, 2016.

  Westwood, R., and D. R. Low. “The Multicultural Muse: Culture, Creativity and Innovation.” International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management 3:2 (2003), 235–59.

  Wu Nan. “Kindergarten Drug Scandal Leads to Call for Overhaul of Regulations.” South China Morning Post, March 30, 2014.

  Xinhua News Agency. “Amendments to the Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China.” August 30, 2015.

  Yang Meiping. “Teachers Seduced by Lucrative Private Work.” Shanghai Daily, February 22, 2016.

  Zahedi, F. “The Challenge of Truth Telling across Cultures: a Case Study.” Journal of Medical Ethics and History of Medicine 4 (2011), 11.

  Zhu Dongli. “The Structure and Social Function Analysis of Chinese Folk Present-Giving Custom.” Northwest A & F University, 2010, 29–32.

  Chapter 10: Beating the System versus Opting Out

  Interview subjects include Carol Dweck, Chai Bensheng, Charles Leadbetter, Haiyan Hua, Marc Tucker, Xinran.

  CCTV-2. “Dialogue: Ballpoint Pen Challenges High End Manufacture.” November 22, 2015.

  Didau, David. “PISA 2015: Some Tentative Thoughts about Successful Teaching.” The Learning Spy blog, December 6, 2016.

  Dong Hongliang. “Yuan Guiren on Education Dream: Individualized Education for All.” People’s Daily, March 8, 2013.

  Fu, Genyue, et al. “Chinese Children’s Moral Evaluation of Lies and Truths: Roles of Context and Parental Individualism-Collectivism Tendencies.” Infant and Child Development 19:5 (2010), 498–515.

  Guilford, J. P. “Creativity.” American Psychologist 5:9 (September 1950), 444–54.

  Han Han. “Shower with the Quilted Jacket On.” Posted on Sina.com, September 29, 2009.

  Kim, Kyung Hee. “Learning from Each Other: Creativity in East Asian and American Education.” Creativity Research Journal 17 (2005) 4: 337–47.

  Liu Chang. “Chinese Company Successfully Manufacturers Ballpoint.” Posted on cctv.com, January 10, 2017.

  Li Xiying, et al. “The Relationship of Youth’s Creative Personality and Creativity: A Comparative Study between China and U.S.” Psychological Exploration 34 (2014) 2: 186–92.

  Postiglione, Gerard. “Improving Transitions: From School to University to Workplace.” Asian Development Bank, 2012.

  Robinson, Ken. Creative Schools: The Grassroots Revolution That’s Transforming Education. Penguin Publishing Group, 2016.

  SASAC. “China Aerospace Science and Industry: Fully Tap into the Role Creativity Plays in Corporate’s Development.” Posted on 163.com, December 7, 2012.

  Schmitz, Rob. “Why Can’t China Make a Good Ballpoint Pen?” APM’s Marketplace, December 14, 2015.

  Schwinger, Malte, et al. “Academic Self-Handicapping and Achievement: A Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Educational Psychology 106:3 (2014), 744–61.

  Shen Jiliang. “The Cultivation of Creative Talents in China Through Intercultural Comparison.” Chinese Talents 11 (2014).

  Staats, Lorin K. “The Cultivation of Creativity in the Chinese Culture—Past, Present, and Future.” Journal of Strategic Leadership 3:1 (2011), 45–53.

  State Council of the CPCCC. “Advice on Policies That Promote Popular Entrepreneurship and Innovation.” July 16, 2015.

  ———. “The 13th Five Year Plan for National Education Development.” January 19, 2017.

  Wadhwa, Vivek, et al. “America’s New Immigrant Entrepreneurs, Parts I–VII.” Duke University, Master of Engineering Management Program; University of California–Berkeley, School of Information, January 4, 2007.

  ———. “Globalization of Innovation.” Kauffman Foundation of Entrepreneurship, June 2008.

  ———. “Skilled Immigration and Economic Growth.” Applied Research in Economic Development 5 (2008): 1.

  Xia G
uming. “Research on Students’ Critical Thinking,” Posted on People Education Press, February 7, 2012;

  Xiao Gangling. “Why Not Educate Students to ‘Challenge Authority’ during Conventional Teaching?” China Education News Network, May 14, 2015.

  Yangguang News. “Li Keqiang Gave an Important Delivery on the Symposium on Reform and Innovation of Higher Education.” April 18, 2016.

  Yun Ma. “If I Graduated from Tsinghua or Peking University . . .” Zhejiang Chamber of Commerce in Shanghai, ninth member meeting. Posted on Sina.com, December 8, 2014.

  Zheng, Yefu. The Pathology of Chinese Education. CITIC Press, 2013.

  Chapter 11: Let’s Do Math!

  Interviews include Jim Cocoros, David Didau, Andreas Schleicher, Brian Steuter, James Stigler, Jie Zhang, Yang Xiaowei, Zheng Zhou.

  Benchmarking for Success. Report by the National Governors Association. Council of Chief State School Officers and Achieve, Inc.

  Center on International Education Benchmarking. “9 Building Blocks for a World-Class Education System.” ncee.org, December 2016.

  China Youth Daily. “British Visit Shanghai to Learn How to Teach Mathematics.” Posted on edu.com, February 28, 2014.

  Crawford, Claire, and Jonathan Cribb. “Reading and Maths Skills at Age 10 and Earnings in Later Life: A Brief Analysis Using the British Cohort Study.” Institute for Fiscal Studies, March 8, 2013.

  Duncan, Greg. “School Readiness and Later Achievement.” Developmental Psychology 43:6 (2007), 1428–46.

  Education Online. “The Number of People Studying Abroad from 2006 to 2012.” Report of overseas study. Posted on Education Online, 2013.

  Fuller‐Rowell, T., and S. Doan. “The Social Costs of Academic Success across Ethnic Groups.” Child Development 81:6 (2010), 1696–1713.

  Grant, Leslie, et al. West Meets East: Best Practices from Expert Teachers in the U.S. and China. ASCD, 2014.

  Huntsinger C. S, et al. “Cultural Differences in Early Mathematics Learning: A Comparison of Euro-American, Chinese-American, and Taiwan-Chinese Families.” International Journal of Behavioral Development 21:2 (1997), 371–88.

  Jerrim, John. “The Link between East Asian ‘Mastery’ Teaching Methods and English Children’s Mathematics Skills.” Economics of Education Review 50 (2016), 29.

  Kirschner, Paul A. “Why Minimal Guidance during Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching.” Educational Psychologist 41:2, 75–86.

  Klahr, D., and M. Nigam. “The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction: Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning.” Psychological Science 15:10 (2004), 661–67.

  Ma, Liping. Knowing and Teaching Elementary Mathematics: Teachers’ Understanding of Fundamental Mathematics in the United States and China. Routledge, 2010.

  Ministry of Science and Technology. “Outline of the National Plan for the Development of Science and Technology for 1978–1985 (Draft).” Posted on the Ministry of Science and Technology website. December 1977.

  Morgan, Paul, et al. “Which Instructional Practices Most Help First-Grade Students with and without Mathematics Difficulties?” Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis (2014).

  Niu, W., and Z. Zhou. “Teaching Mathematics Creativity in Chinese Classrooms.” In Nurturing Creativity in the Classroom. Cambridge University Press, 2010.

  Peterson, Paul E., et al. “Globally Challenged: Are U.S. Students Ready to Compete?” Prepared under the auspices of Harvard’s Program on Education Policy and Governance, and Education Next, August 2011.

  Ryan, Julia. “American Schools vs. the World: Expensive, Unequal, Bad at Math.” Atlantic, December 10, 2013.

  Shellenbarger, Sue. “The Best Language for Math: Confusing English Number Words Are Linked to Weaker Skills.” Wall Street Journal, September 15, 2014.

  Siegler, R. S., and Y. Mu. “Chinese Children Excel on Novel Mathematics Problems Even before Elementary School.” Psychological Science 19:8 (2008), 759–63.

  Stevenson, Harold, James W. Stigler. Learning Gap: Why Our Schools Are Failing and What We Can Learn from Japanese and Chinese Education. Summit Books, 1992.

  Sztein, Ester, and National Research Council. The Teacher Development Continuum in the United States and China: Summary of a Workshop. National Academies Press, 2010.

  Vigdor, Jacob. “Solving America’s Math Problem.” EducationNext 13 (2013), 1.

  Winifred, Mark, and Ann Dowker. “Linguistic Influence on Mathematical Development Is Specific Rather than Pervasive: Revisiting the Chinese Number Advantage in Chinese and English Children.” Frontiers in Psychology 6 (2015), 203.

  Zhao, D., and M. Singh. “Why Do Chinese-Australian Students Outperform Their Australian Peers in Mathematics: a Comparative Case Study.” International Journal of Science and Math Education 9 (2011), 69.

  Zhou, Zheng, et al. “Understanding Early Mathematical Competencies in American and Chinese Children.” School Psychology International 42:3 (2005), 259–72.

  Zhou, Zheng, and Stephen Peverly. “Teaching Addition and Subtraction to First Graders: A Chinese Perspective.” Psychology in the Schools 42 (2005), 3.

  Chapter 12: Genius Means Struggle

  Interviews include Zhang Zhizhong, Sheen Zhang, Teacher Mao, Teacher Song, Xiaodong Lin, Zhang Huiping.

  Alexander, Scott. “The Parable of the Talents.” Slate Star Codex blog, January 31, 2015.

  Bjork, Robert A. “Memory and Metamemory Considerations in the Training of Human Beings.” Metacognition: Knowing About Knowing. MIT Press, 1994.

  Borden, Jonathan. Confucius Meets Piaget: An Educational Perspective on Ethnic Korean Children and Their Parents. 2nd edition. Seoul Foreign School, 2003.

  Dolton, Peter, and Oscar Marcenaro-Gutierrez. Global Teacher Status Index. Varkey GEMS Foundation, 2013.

  Dweck, Carol S. “Caution—Praise Can Be Dangerous.” American Educator (Spring 1999).

  Gong Shanshan, “The Positive and Negative Effects of Rewards and Punishment in Education and Proper Ways of Using Them.” Studies in Logic 26 (2006), 190–93.

  Heffernan, Virginia. “Drill, Baby, Drill.” New York Times Magazine, September 16, 2010.

  Hirsch, Ed. “You Can Always Look It Up, or Can You?” American Educator (Spring 2000).

  Hong, H.-Y., and X. Lin-Siegler. “How Learning about Scientists’ Struggles Influences Students’ Interest and Learning in Physics.” Journal of Educational Psychology. First published online November 11, 2011.

  Hsin, Amy, and Yu Xie. “Explaining Asian Americans’ Academic Advantage over Whites.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111 (2014), 23.

  Maslen, Geoffrey. “Chinese Children ‘Learn Good Study Habits at Home.’” South China Morning Post, September, 20, 2008.

  Most Likely to Succeed. Documentary by One Potato Productions, 2015.

  Ni Mingjin. “Empowered Administration Program for Rural Schools of Compulsory Education.” Posted on the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission website, March 7, 2013.

  Tatto, Maria, et al. Policy, Practice and Readiness to Teach Primary and Secondary Mathematics in 17 Countries. International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, 2012.

  Tan, Li Hai, et al. “Brain Activation in the Processing of Chinese Characters and Words: A Functional MRI Study.” Human Brain Mapping 10 (2000), 16–27.

  Tobin, Joseph, et al. Preschool in Three Cultures Revisited: China, Japan, and the United States. Yale University Press, 1991.

  Tucker, Marc. “Why Have American Education Standards Collapsed?” Education Week, April 23, 2015.

  Chapter 13: The Middle Ground

  China Education Online. “China Becomes the Top Overseas Student Export Country, Total Number Continues to Rise.” Posted on ifeng.com, May 7, 2014.

  ———. “2014 Overseas Studying Trend Report.” eol.cn, 2014.

  Gao Liang and Li Yaoming. “Seeking the Force for Change: Report
on the Education Reform of No. 11 School.” China Education News Network, April 2, 2014.

  Jiefang Daily. “National Day School, Why Do We Choose You?” Posted on xschu.com, February 14, 2014.

  Lambert, Phil. “Expanding Horizons: What Can Educators in China and Australia Learn from Each Other?” Paper presented at Nanjing Normal University, China, April 9, 2012.

  Lan Fang. “According to a Survey, There Are 100 Thousand People in China Received Non-School Education.” Posted on Caixin Net, May 14, 2014.

  Li Jieren, “Why Can’t Other Schools Learn from Beijing National Day School?” March 16, 2015.

  Li, Yulan, and Zhenguo Zhu. “Why Does the Rate of College Entrance Test (Gaokao) Participation Keep Declining Year by Year?” GuangMing Daily, June 6, 2011.

  Ministry of Education of the PRC. “Statistics of Foreign Students Studying in China 2014.” March 18, 2015.

  Ministry of Education of the PRC, Headquarters of the General Staff, General Political Department. “Guideline for Military Training of High School Students.” January 30, 2003.

  Nanfang Daily. “Chinese Examination-Oriented Education Started Its Transition from ‘Selecting by Points’ to ‘Selecting by People.’” Posted on news.163.com, July 8, 2015.

  People’s Daily. “National Day School Breaks the Traditional System of Class Distribution and Changes to Course Selection System.” Posted on edu.163.com, February 28, 2014.

  Swandon, William, and Brian Kelly, “STEM Proficiency: A Key Driver of Innovation, Economic Growth and National Security.” US News & World Report, April 23, 2014.

  Tencent Education. “2014 Gaokao Admission Scores Released.” Posted on qq.com, June 26, 2014.

  Wu, Jing. “Number of Students Study Abroad and Returnees Continue to Rise in 2013.” Posted on Xinhuanet.com, February 21, 2014.

  General

  Akehurst, Jessica Marie. Culture, Cultural Discontinuity and the Need for Change: Understanding Canadian and Chinese Conceptions of Teaching and Learning. Thesis submitted, University of British Columbia, 2012.