neutrality, 2
Nevada, 172
New Corn (Potawatomi), 112
New France, 25, 47
New Jersey, 38, 49, 77, 94, 246
New Mexico, 21, 166, 172, 215, 227
newspapers (press), 188, 189, 192, 193, 194, 196, 204–5, 206, 213. see also individual reporters; specific newspapers
New York City delegation, 231, 232
New York Herald (newspaper), 188, 189, 212
New York State, 25, 31
Canandaigua Treaty and, 111
Fort Stanwix Treaty and, 49, 100, 101
Iroquois and, 96, 101–2, 111
Senecas and, 119
shady deals, 101
western lands and, 94
New York Times (newspaper), 230
New Zealand, 243
Nez Perces, 171, 177–78, 178, 179, 227, 228. see also Plains Indians
Nicholls, Richard, 295n125, 295n125
Nickus (Mohawk), 57
Nimwha (Shawnee), 65
Nisquallys, 177
Norridgwocks, 26–27
North, Frank, 219
North American Review, 230
North Carolina, 98, 104, 118, 121, 122
Northern Pacific Railroad, 177, 180
Northrup, Sarah Bird, 125, 126
Northwest Coast Indians, 240
Northwest Ordinance (1787), 94, 105
Norton, John, 25
Notes on the State of Virginia (Jefferson), 88
obligations
gifts and, 19
kinship and, 24–25
wampum and, 27
Oconostota (Oconostata) (Oconostoto) (Cherokee), 63, 87, 91, 104
Ogden Land Company, 119
Oglala Lakotas (Sioux), 35, 226, 239
Ohio, 115
Ohio Company of Virginia, 44, 82
Ohio Indians
American diplomacy and, 103
Europeans and, 65, 72–73
Fort Stanwix Treaty and, 79, 80, 86
Iroquois League and, 54
W. Johnson and, 77
Revolutionary War and, 90
right of conquest and, 102
Washington and, 41–42
Ohio River and Valley
Auglaize River conference and, 108
as boundary, 95
British and, 45, 54, 65, 84
Cherokees and Iroquois and, 86
Croghan and, 57, 58, 60
Fort Harmar treaties and, 105–6
Fort Stanwix Treaty and, 49, 100
Indian wars and, 91
Lancaster Treaty and, 44
Pickering and, 110
right of conquest and, 102
Sandusky conference and, 109
settlers and, 87
Shawnees and, 103, 113
treaties and, 98
Ojibwes, 25, 105, 119–20, 170, 240
Oklahoma, 183, 201, 215, 235
Old Settlers (Cherokees), 154, 156, 157, 159
Old Smoke (Sayenqueragtha) (Seneca), 68, 89, 92, 93
Omahas, 167, 170
Onas (feather/quill) (William Penn), 25, 30, 36, 38, 131–32
Oneida country, 153
Oneidas. see also Iroquois (Iroquois League) (Six Nations); individual Oneidas
Canandaigua Treaty and, 110–11
Fort Stanwix Treaty and, 75, 248
homelands, 110–11
interpreters and, 42
Iroquois League and, 1, 24
W. Johnson and, 64, 73–74
missionaries and, 74
New York State and, 101, 111
Pickering and, 111
Revolutionary War and, 92
Oneyanha (Beech Tree) (Oneida), 101
Onondagas. see also Iroquois (Iroquois League) (Six Nations); individual Onondagas
calumet and, 34
Iroquois League and, 1, 24
W. Johnson and, 62, 70
Johnson Hall conference and, 60
New York State and, 101, 111
wampum and, 31–32
Wharton and, 299n44
Onondiyo (Captain John) (Oneida), 110–11
Onontio (Chevalier de Montmagny) (Great Mountain), 25
opportunism, 84. see also speculators
oral pacts, 5
oral tradition, 35–40
oratory, 7, 23, 43, 99, 209
Oregon, 172, 174, 177, 180
O’Reilly, Alejandro, 34–35
Osages, 156, 165, 169, 170–71, 183, 200, 216. see also Plains Indians
Ostler, Jeffrey, 175, 227
Otos, 167, 170
Otsinoghiyata (Bunt) (Onondaga), 77, 89, 248
Ottawas. see also individual Ottawas
calumet and, 34
Detroit conference and, 105
Great Lakes land and, 119
Mahicans and, 25
Prairie du Chien Treaty and, 170
trust and, 120
wampum and, 31, 32
Owl (Miami), 116
Owl Prophet (Dohate) (Maman-ti) (Touching the Sky) (Kiowa), 223, 224
Owl Woman (Bent) (Cheyenne), 184
Pacific Coast, 176. see also specific states
Pacific Northwest, 177. see also specific states
Pacific Railroad Acts (1862, 1864), 180
Painted Pole (Shawnee), 108
Palmer, Joel, 177, 178
Palo Duro Canyon, 222
panic of 1837, 151
Panis Indians, 47, 297n174
Panton, William, 114
Paris, Peace of (1763), 53, 54
Paris, Peace of (1783), 94–95, 97, 100, 105
Parker, Ely S. (Seneca), 162, 231
Parker, Quanah (Comanche), 237
Parsons, Samuel, 103
Paruasemena (Yamparika Comanche). see Ten Bears
Paschal, George, 318n151
Passamaquoddies, 241
passports, 34
patience, 110
patrilineal societies, 24
Pawnee Creek, 194
Pawnee Fork village, 195
Pawnees, 156, 170–71, 235. see also Plains Indians
Paxton Boys, 55
Payne, John Howard, 141, 142–43
peace
calumet and, 33, 34–35
Indian understanding of, 16
intertribal, 179
Medicine Lodge Treaty and, 213
Ross on, 229
peace ambassadors, 25–26
pen-and-ink witch-craft, 2, 36, 106, 244
Pend Oreilles, 179
Peneteka Comanches (Honey Eaters), 183, 200, 204, 214–15
Penn, John, 67, 93
Penn, Thomas, 38–39, 62
Penn, William (Onas) (feather) (quill), 25, 30, 36, 38, 131–32
Penn, William (pen name) (Jeremiah Everts), 131–32
Penn family, 85, 93
Pennsylvania. see also Paxton Boys; Treaty of Lancaster; individual Pennsylvanians
Croghan and, 57
Delawares and, 30, 38–39
Fort Stanwix Treaty and, 49, 70, 75–76, 83–84, 100, 246
interpreters and, 41, 69
Iroquois and, 44–45, 62
Penn family and, 93
unscrupulous practices, 37
western lands and, 94
written treaties and, 35, 36
Wyoming Valley and, 61
Penobscots, 26–27, 37–38, 241
Perdue, Theda, 136, 316n100
Perrot, Nicholas, 34
Peters, Richard, 39, 67–68, 69, 79, 93, 248
Philadelphia, delegation to, 15
Philbrick, Nathaniel, 188
Philips, Philip, 68, 69
Phoenix (Cherokee newspaper), 9, 129, 131, 136, 142
Piankeshaws, 105
Pickens, Andrew, 103–4
Pickering, Timothy, 110–11
pictographs, 46
Piegans, 179
Pierce, Maris Bryant (Seneca), 120
Pike, Albert, 161
pipes (calumets) and smoking. see also tobacco
Caddos an
d, 165
colonial era and, 14, 20, 25–35
Fort Finney conference and, 102
Fort Laramie Treaty and, 175
Great Plains Indians and, 17
W. Johnson and, 64
Lewis and Clark and, 167, 168–69
Logstown Treaty and, 34
Medicine Lodge Treaty and, 209
New Mexico and, 166
truth and, 33
US commissioners and, 98
Wayne and, 111–12
Pitchlynn, John, 115
“Pittsylvania,” 82
Pizelle, John (Poisal), 175, 197
Plains Indians. see also western lands and Indians; specific tribes
alliances and, 171–72
Cherokees and, 156
diplomacy and, 164–65, 171
diseases and, 167, 174
Europeans and, 165–66
Fort Atkinson Treaty and, 176
horses and, 165, 167
intertribal alliances, 165
leadership and, 16–17
Medicine Lodge Treaty and, 182, 196, 202
reservations and, 9–10
signatures, 46
trade and, 167
US Indian Peace Commission and, 186
US military and, 177
violence and, 172, 183, 184–85, 216–17, 218–19, 220, 221, 222
plenary power doctrine, 238
Plymouth Colony, 13–14, 19
Pocahontas (Powhatan), 13
Poinsett, Joel, 157
Point Pleasant battle, 90
Poisal, John (Pizelle), 175, 197
political savvy of Indians, 43, 116, 119–20
Polk, James, 159, 173
Pomo tribe, 5
Poncas, 170–71, 235
Pontiac (Ottawa), 54
Pontiac’s War, 47, 58, 66
Poor Bear (Plains Apache), 176, 194, 198, 200
Porter, George, 139
Post, Christian Frederick, 47
Potawatomis. see also individual Potawatomis
bribery and, 139–40
Cherokee Commission and, 235
Chicago Treaty, 118–19, 139–40
Detroit conference and, 105
Fort Wayne Treaty and, 116
Mahicans and, 25
medals and, 112
number of treaties signed, 5, 119
Prairie du Chien Treaty and, 170
Schermerhorn and, 139–40
trust and, 120
Wells and, 113
Powder Face (Arapaho), 216, 231
Powell, William, 58
power
American, 99
diplomacy and, 164–65, 173
Indian, 17
Jackson and, 132–33
liquor and, 45
medals and, 21, 99
Roman Nose on, 184
treaties and, 228–29
US and, 7, 108, 112
US Supreme Court on, 238
wars and, 13
of words, 22–25
writing and, 36, 38, 39–40
Powhatan, 13
Pratt, Richard Henry, 196, 223–24
pre-contact Indians, 12–13
prewritten treaties, 170, 177
price of land, 144
Principal Dogs (Katsienko) (Koietsenko) (Qóichégàu) (Sentinel Horses), 191, 197, 207
prisoners, 92, 93, 94, 198, 223, 224
private meetings and agreements. see also secret articles
chief salaries and, 107–8
Fort Stanwix Treaty and, 69–70, 75–76
W. Johnson and, 69–70, 72, 73
Medicine Lodge Treaty and, 194
Schermerhorn and, 140
as standard practice, 40, 70
Walla Walla Treaty and, 178
private property (land), 93, 98, 204, 234
Privy Council (Britain), 82, 84
Proclamation of 1763, 81, 89
promiscuity, 165
protests, 11, 104, 106, 120
protocols, 12, 14–15, 194
Prucha, Francis Paul, 172
Pueblos, 167
Puget Sound Basin, 177
Pumpshire, John, 39
Puyallups, 177
Qóichégàu (Katsienkos) (Koietsenkos) (Real/Principal Dogs) (Sentinel Horses) (Kiowas), 191, 197, 207
Quakers, 18, 42, 110, 111. see also individual Quakers
Quapaws, 33–34, 139
Quebec Act of 1774, 82–83
quill (feather) (Onas) (William Penn), 25, 30, 36, 38, 131–32
racherías, 174
racism, 130
railroads. see also specific railroad companies
attacks on, 183, 184, 198
Boudinot and, 233
buffalos and, 222
Fort Laramie Treaty and, 226, 227
Iroquois and, 119
Jerome Commission and, 237
Medicine Lodge Treaty and, 185, 204, 209, 210, 211, 219, 221
Navajos and, 227
Pacific Northwest and, 177, 180
Plains Indians and, 186
Stone Calf on, 231
the Rat (Kondiaronk) (Huron), 15
ratification, US Constitution and, 106–7
Raven of Chota, 91
Real Dogs (Katsienkos) (Koietsenkos) (Qóichégàus) (Sentinel Horses) (Kiowas), 191, 197, 207
Red Clay proclamation (1836), 148
Red Cloud (Oglala), 226–27
Red Cloud War, 184–85
Red Hawk (Shawnee), 86
Red Head (Onondaga), 34
Red Jacket (Seneca), 108, 110, 113
Red River War (Buffalo War), 221, 222–23
Red Sticks. see Creeks
religion. see Christianity
removal. see also Boudinot, Elias (Galagina) (Buck Watie) (Cherokee); The Ridge; Ridge, John; Ross, John (Cherokee); Treaty of New Echota (1835)
Cherokees and, 120, 123–24, 129–30, 135–53
Chicago Treaty and, 118–19
W. Clark and, 170–71
costs of, 152, 153–54, 160
deadline, 151, 152
depredations and, 152–53
disease and, 150, 152
Georgia and, 137
Jackson and, 132–33, 135
logistics and planning, 151–52
New Echota Treaty and, 9
numbers removed, 153
opponents of, 129–32, 133
Ross and Boudinot on, 149
Scott and, 151
timeline, 147
US Civil War and, 163
US Supreme Court and, 120, 133–34
Renan, Ernest, 225
reservations
Arapahos and, 210
California and, 173–74
Cherokee Commission and, 236
Cheyennes and, 211, 219
Dawes Act and, 234
Doolittle report and, 185
extinction versus, 181, 182
Fort Laramie Treaty and, 175, 226
Fort Stanwix Treaty and, 84
Grant and, 219
Indian Office and, 173
Indian opinions of, 222
Indian Trade and Intercourse Act of 1834 and, 172
Jerome Commission and, 237
Kiowas and, 238
Lakotas and, 235
Lapwai Valley Treaty and, 227
Little Arkansas Treaty and, 183, 184
Medicine Lodge Treaty and, 10, 182, 201–2, 203–4, 205, 210, 211, 214, 216
New Echota Treaty and, 144
railroads and, 186
settlers and, 230
Sheridan and, 219
Stevens and, 177
US Civil War and, 163
US Congress and, 230
US expansion and, 9–10
US Indian Peace Commission and, 186
resistance. see also violence and retaliation
by Kiowas, 184
New Echota Treaty and, 144
by J. Ross, 156–57
Sassaba and, 119–20
res judicata, 241
<
br /> Revolutionary War
Cherokee homelands and, 122
compensation for services, 111
effects of, 96
Fort Stanwix Treaty and, 90, 92
land grants and, 100, 103, 111
Sayenqueraghta on, 93
Shawnees and, 103
speculators and, 83
Washington and, 100
Reynolds, Milton, 188–89
Richardville, Jean-Baptiste (Miami), 140
Rider, Ellis, 158
The Ridge (Major Ridge) (Kahmungdaclageh) (Cherokee). see also Treaty Party
death penalty and, 154
image, 124
Jackson and, 148
life history, 123
New Echota Treaty and, 9, 143–45, 147
removal and, 124–26, 129, 131, 135–38, 150
wife, 125, 157
Ridge, Andrew Jackson, 140, 141
Ridge, John (Cherokee). see also Treaty Party
Cherokee civil wars and, 155
death of, 154–55
family of, 318n151
image, 126
Jackson and, 140, 148
life history, 125–28
New Echota Treaty and, 9, 141, 142, 147–48
removal and, 129, 135–38, 150
John Ross and, 135–38, 140–42, 145–46, 153
Schermerhorn and, 140, 141, 142
Ridge, John Rollin (Cherokee), 154, 157–58, 159, 160–61, 163
Ridge, Nancy, 125
Ridge, Susanna (Sehoya) (Wickett) (Cherokee), 125
right of conquest, 100, 102, 105, 111
right of cultivation, 115
right of preemption, 95
rights, equal, 243–44
rights of discovery, 3–4, 5
rights of Indians, 3, 43, 129, 155–56, 231–32, 238–39, 242–43, 333n34. see also legality
rights to buy, 4
rights to fish and to hunt, 75, 177, 217, 240
rights to sale of land, 65
rituals, 4, 12, 14–15, 16, 105, 167, 287n9; gifts; pipes and smoking; wampum belts; (Gus-Wen-Tah) (Kaswentha); specific rituals
roads, 179
Robinson, Alexander (Chechebinquey) (Potawatomi), 139–40
Robinson, Charles, 192
Rocky Mountains, 32
Rodgers, John (Cherokee), 154
Roman Nose (Cheyenne), 184, 193, 211, 216, 217, 219
Ross, Allen (Cherokee), 154
Ross, Andrew (Cherokee), 138, 144, 149
Ross, Edmond G., 188, 228
Ross, James (Cherokee), 162
Ross, Jane (Meigs), 158
Ross, John (Cherokee). see also National Party (Cherokee)
arrest of, 142–43
Bell and, 157
Cherokee civil wars and, 159–60
costs of removal and, 152, 160
death of, 163
image, 130
Jackson and, 123, 135, 148
McIntosh and, 125
New Echota Treaty and, 141, 145–46, 149–50, 154, 156–57, 159, 160, 249
removal and, 129, 131, 136–38, 140–41, 151–52, 159
J. Ridge and, 135–38, 140–46, 153, 155
Schermerhorn and, 142, 145, 147
on sovereignty, 155, 158, 159, 162
Tahlequah conference and, 156
US Civil War and, 161–62
Pen and Ink Witchcraft Page 57