The Marshall Plan
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Truman’s policies as viewed by, 50, 70, 93–94, 225, 262, 302, 306, 312, 320, 322–25, 329–31, 407
Truman’s relationship with, 25, 32, 34–35, 40, 41, 42–43, 45, 63, 94–96, 125, 225, 262, 312, 334
West German policies of, 298, 311, 312, 322, 326, 328, 332–34, 336
Acheson, Mary, 328
Adenauer, Konrad, 208, 287, 310, 321, 328, 329, 335–36, 361, 365, 378, 407
Advisory Steering Committee on European Recovery Program, 190–91
Afghanistan, 375, 397
Africa, 31, 35
agriculture, 99–100, 105, 141, 170, 185, 200, 215, 237, 243–44, 342, 367
Air Force, U.S., 250, 258–59
Albania, 148, 193, 228
Albright, Madeleine, 384–85, 391, 392, 393, 394, 400
Alexander I, Czar of Russia, 71
Alfonso VI, King of León and Castile, 339
Alliance for Germany, 382, 383
Allied Control Council (ACC), 8, 59–60, 63, 64, 68, 128, 203, 270, 273, 331, 332, 379–80
Allied High Commission, 336, 337, 370
Alliluyeva, Svetlana, 182
Alphand, Hervé, 158, 164, 168, 407
Alvarez, Alberto, 309, 407
American Federation of Labor (AFL), 200
American Legion, 200
“American Relations with the Soviet Union” (Clifford-Elsey Report), 41
American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), 201
American Society of Newspaper Editors, 347
Anglo-Russian-Iranian Treaty (1942), 24
Anglo-Soviet treaty (1942), 203
Annan, Noel, 106
anticommunism, 7–8, 65, 71, 92–93, 193, 211
Arab Spring, 374
Argentina, 295, 298
Armenia, 23–24
Army, U.S., 103, 241, 250, 271, 277, 324
Army Corps of Engineers, U.S., 103
Articles of Confederation, 214
Asia, 31, 35, 42, 144, 373
Asmus, Ron, 390, 394, 395, 396, 407, 577n
Assad, Bashir al-, 392
Assembly (West Berlin), 286, 290, 303
Association Agreement, 397
atomic bomb, 9–10, 12, 91, 105–6, 235, 282, 294, 321, 337
Attlee, Clement, 7, 21, 73, 125, 126, 165, 302, 309–10, 314, 348, 360, 408, 411
Augusta Chronicle, 45
Augustine, Saint, 359
Auriol, Vincent, 188, 408
Austin, Warren, 50, 408
Austria, 7, 35, 71, 106, 147, 191, 216, 221, 263, 331, 333, 342, 343, 344, 366
Azerbaijan, 23
B-29 bombers, 282
Baker, James, III, 379, 380, 381–82, 398, 408
balance of payments, 11, 161, 347–48, 369
Balkans, 47, 78, 185, 386
Ball, Joseph, 257
Baltic states, 388, 401–2, 577n
see also Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania
banking sector, 221, 269, 285, 286, 348, 358
Bank of Emission, 286
Bank of France, 352
Barbour, Wally, 337, 408
Barkley, Alben, 34, 408
Baruch, Bernard, 231, 408
Basic Law (Grundgesetz), 329, 381
Baylor University, 39–41
BBC, 111, 114, 399
Beckett, Samuel, 351
Belarus, 386
Belgium, 17–18, 47, 100, 147, 148, 153–54, 295, 318, 344, 367
Bell, Elliott, 301, 408
Belorussia, 73
Bender, George H., 192, 408
Benelux (Belgium-Netherlands-Luxembourg), 100, 148, 149, 150–53, 158–59, 173, 249, 251
Beneš, Edvard, 140, 143, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 408
Beria, Lavrentiy, 79, 408
Berlin, East, 80, 275, 290, 309–10, 332, 457
Berlin, Isaiah, 195
Berlin, Occupied:
blockades in, 254, 269–74, 281–85, 287, 290, 297, 298, 303, 307, 309, 310–14, 322, 324–25, 331–32, 334, 371
division of, 332, 377, 393, 398, 401
postwar conditions in, 15, 75, 89–90, 106, 107, 149, 151–52, 153, 177, 250, 253–55, 269–76, 281
Stalin’s policies on, 253–54, 278, 282–83, 287–88, 291–92, 296–97, 303, 310–12, 323, 330–31, 334
Truman’s policies on, 7–8, 276–78, 282–83, 287, 293–94, 312, 332–34, 379–80
Berlin, West, 177, 273, 457
Assembly of, 286, 290, 303
Clay’s policies on, 302, 304, 307–8, 321–22, 327, 359–60
Magistrat of, 273, 285, 286, 303
strategic importance of, 254–55, 269, 273–74, 280–81, 285, 292, 302–10, 324, 332, 378
Berlin Airlift, 254–55, 272–99, 301, 307, 310–14, 324–25, 328, 332–34, 358, 372–73, 561n
Berlin Wall, 332, 377, 393, 398, 401
Berman, Jakub, 185, 408
Bevin, Ernest, 21, 59, 68, 111, 118, 121, 124–27, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 138, 147, 155, 173, 204–5, 231, 250, 252, 261, 267, 279, 280, 283, 294, 295, 307, 308, 311, 313–14, 322–23, 327, 330, 331, 333, 408
Bidault, Georges, 58, 59, 69, 114–15, 118, 120, 121–23, 127, 129–30, 131–32, 134, 138, 147–50, 152, 164, 170, 171, 179, 205, 252, 261, 271, 282, 350, 351, 352, 374, 409
Bierut, Bolesław, 136–37
Big Three, 6, 20–21, 61–63, 170
Bilbo, Theodore, 93, 409
Bismarck, Otto von, 78, 213, 340
Bissell, Richard, Jr., 195–96, 263, 315, 343, 345, 347, 364, 409
Bizonal Economic Council, 105, 206, 207
Bizonia, 60, 68, 69, 76, 105–6, 149, 151, 153, 203, 206, 207, 208, 249, 274–75
black markets, 17–18, 274, 366–67
Black Sea Fleet, Russian, 397–98
Bloom, Sol, 34, 409
Blücher, Franz, 335, 409
Blum, Léon, 188, 409
Blunt, Anthony, 409
Bodrov, Mikhail, 138, 409
Bogomolov, Alexander, 157, 409
Bohlen, Charles (Chip), 4, 12, 29, 31–32, 41, 56, 70, 71, 72, 77, 108, 110, 113, 162, 206, 239, 247, 256, 278, 286, 303, 309, 323, 327, 328, 332–33, 341, 372, 409
Bolshevik Party Central Committee, 72
Bolsheviks, 57, 71, 72–73, 237, 238
Bolshoi Theater, 10, 27, 71
Bonn constitutional convention (1948), 289, 292, 322, 323, 330, 331
Bonnet, Henri, 152, 409
Bonn government, 322, 325, 329
Bonn Parliamentary Council, 329
Bosnia, 392
Bradley, Omar, 279, 317, 321, 409
Bramuglia, Juan Atilio, 297–98, 309, 409–10
Bretton Woods Conference (1944), 8, 10, 11, 101, 108, 137, 153, 164, 167, 215, 221, 225–26, 362, 364, 370
Bridges, Henry Styles, 34, 192, 410
British Commonwealth, 125–26, 155, 158–59, 205
British Empire, 3, 11, 21–27, 31–33, 37, 38, 46, 49, 155, 156, 161, 164, 165–66, 172, 189, 213
British zone, 18, 62, 65, 68, 208, 360–61
Brook, William Arthur Darville, 282, 410
Brookings Institution, 199
Brown, Clarence, 192, 410
Brown, Winthrop, 163, 410
Bruce, David, 351, 410
Bruins, John, 243, 410
Brussels Treaty (1948), 251–52, 253
Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 410, 576n
budget deficits, 61, 90, 220, 344, 349, 351, 354, 366, 446
Bukharin, Nikolai, 72–73, 410
Bulgaria, 7, 78–79, 126, 128, 141, 142, 148, 184, 185, 228, 306, 315, 372, 400, 401, 529n
Bundestag, 310, 335–36, 378
Bureau of Reconversion Priorities, U.S., 225
Burgess, Guy, 127, 250, 410
Burma, 21
Bush, George H. W., 379, 381–82, 387
Byrnes, James (Jimmy), 6, 7, 27, 35, 40, 56, 58, 60, 63, 67, 78, 104, 133, 202–3, 207, 242, 275, 410
C-47 transport planes, 40, 277
Cadogan, Alexander, 323
Cairncross, Alec, 63, 410
calorie consumption, 18, 366–67
Canada, 253, 295, 318, 319
capital equipment, 62, 251, 357, 361, 364, 370, 572n
capitalism, x, 10, 16–17, 57, 60, 73, 82, 100, 123, 126, 132, 138, 179, 186, 187–88, 209, 239, 275, 330–31, 335, 359, 386, 393, 520n
capital losses, 112, 343, 344
Carter, Marshall (Pat), 59, 110, 410
cartohypnosis, 43
Catherine II (“the Great”), Empress of Russia, 71
Catholic Church, 181
Catroux, Georges, 69, 203, 410
Caucasus Mountains, 23, 43
Celler, Emanuel, 20, 411
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 12, 186, 195, 207, 228, 241, 250, 258, 262, 286, 287, 312, 315–16, 371
Central Intelligence Group, 371
Chamber of Commerce, U.S., 200, 223–24, 314, 369–70
Changes in Capitalist Economy Following World War II, The (Varga), 520n
Chataigneau, Yves, 283–84, 411
Chechnya, 391
Chekhov, Anton, 28
Chernyshevsky, Nikolai, 83, 411
chess, 339–40, 566n
Chiang Kai-shek, 56–57, 269, 411
Chicago Tribune, 294, 301
China, 2, 33, 43, 49, 56, 58, 88, 175, 216, 221, 260, 269, 295, 374, 380, 386
“Chinese Marshall Plan,” 374
Christian Democrat Party (MRP), 122, 188, 262, 305, 349, 350, 354
Christian Democrat Union (CDU), 208, 228, 287, 290, 304, 310, 335
Christianity, 200
Christian Social Union (CSU), 228, 335
Christopher, Warren, 388–89
Chuikov, Vasily, 312, 328, 411
Churchill, Winston S., 3, 5, 10, 15, 47, 58, 60, 61–62, 69, 73, 75, 82, 93, 124, 155, 212, 241, 402, 411
City Council (West Berlin), 273
Clarke, Richard (Otto), 154, 263
Clausewitz, Carl von, 133, 262
Clay, Lucius D.:
armed convoys supported by, 279–80, 282
background of, 103–4, 411
Berlin Airlift proposed by, 272–76, 278, 287, 289–90, 292, 324
currency reform supported by, 270–72, 285, 307–8, 360–61
French authorities as viewed by, 66–68, 82, 107, 150, 152–53, 271–72, 273, 307–8, 321–22
German reindustrialization and, 82, 105–7, 151, 203, 357, 359–61
Kennan compared with, 107, 250, 255–56, 326–27
“localitis” of, 107, 321–22
Marshall’s policies as viewed by, 70, 103–4, 105, 150–53, 206–7, 287, 325, 372
Marshall’s relationship with, 105, 107–8, 149–52, 206–7, 284–85, 303–4
as military governor, 64–65, 68, 89, 103–7, 134, 151–52, 203, 206–7, 270–75, 278, 287, 288, 289–90, 302, 307–8, 321–25, 334, 357, 359–60, 367, 372
Molotov as viewed by, 205–6, 286, 287, 288
postwar reconstruction supported by, 9, 64–68, 82, 105–7, 151, 270–75, 334, 359–61, 367
resignation and retirement of, 66–67, 150, 324–25, 334
Soviet attitude as viewed by, 64–68, 70, 107, 149, 205–6, 250, 255–56, 276, 278–80, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 307–8, 325, 327, 359–60
Truman’s policies as viewed by, 64–68, 70, 105–7, 150, 247, 270–75, 282, 324–25, 334
West Berlin policies of, 302, 304, 307–8, 321–22, 327, 359–60
Clayton, Sue, 51
Clayton, William:
Acheson compared with, 225, 226, 262, 341
background of, 50–51, 226, 262, 411
British and French interests as seen by, 121, 128, 150, 164, 170
European economic recovery as viewed by, 20, 51–52, 63, 87, 99–101, 108, 151, 154, 158–59, 162, 164, 165–66, 169, 170, 174, 226, 257, 346, 353, 361, 367
Marshall Plan contribution of, 99–101, 103, 108, 110, 113, 121, 128, 151, 154, 157–62, 164, 165, 166–74, 243, 257, 341, 345, 346, 353, 372
Marshall’s relationship with, 99–100, 159, 166–74, 243
in Paris talks, 121, 128, 150–52, 156–74
postwar policy developed by, 9, 20, 52, 63, 108, 121, 154, 157–60, 199, 226
Truman’s relationship with, 39, 52, 225, 226, 262
as undersecretary of state for economic affairs, 20, 40, 51, 87, 160–63, 199, 361, 367
Clementis, Vladimír, 138, 143, 241, 411
Cleveland, Harlan, 355, 411
Cleveland, Miss., 93–96
Clifford, Clark, 41, 43–44, 111, 219, 220, 221, 225, 411–12
Clinton, Bill, 387, 389–90, 393, 394, 395, 412
Clinton, Hillary, 374, 412
coal supplies, 6, 7, 67, 70, 103, 125, 130, 137, 150, 152, 153, 159, 164, 167, 169, 171, 183, 187, 197, 274, 277–78, 279, 310, 322, 323, 345, 353, 357, 367
Cohen, Benjamin, 108, 412
Cold War, 10, 28, 37, 115, 118, 187, 297, 315–16, 340–41, 356, 385
Cold War, The (Lippmann), 187
Colombia, 295
Combettes (sculptor), 147
Combined Airlift Task Force, 302
Combined Chiefs of Staff, U.S., 270
Cominform (Communist Information Bureau), 180, 182, 184, 185–86, 235–36, 257, 349, 371
Comintern (Communist International), 184
Committee for Economic Development (CED), 199, 200
Committee for the Marshall Plan to Aid European Recovery (Marshall Plan Committee), 199
Committee of European Economic Co-operation (CEEC), 148, 156–57, 159, 160, 162, 172, 305
Committees of Action, 238
Common Market, 153, 188, 322
communism, 7–8, 65, 71, 92–93, 180–89, 191, 193–94, 210, 211, 227–28, 315, 353
Communist Party Central Committee (Soviet Union), 46, 57–58, 74, 119, 121, 127–28, 130, 135, 163, 175, 180, 181, 211, 227–28, 230, 293, 303, 380
Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), 46, 57–58, 74, 119, 121, 127–28, 130, 135, 163, 175, 180, 181, 211, 227–28, 230, 293, 303, 380
Communist Party of the U.S.A. (CPUSA), 200, 267
concentration camps, 106
Congress, U.S., 2, 9, 33–39, 42, 43, 50, 57, 70, 97, 161, 169–70, 176, 193–98, 201, 207, 211–17, 221, 224–33, 247–49, 251, 256–61, 301–2, 309, 317–20, 321, 346
Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), 200
Congress of Vienna, The (Nicolson), 71
Connally, Tom, 34, 35, 319, 412
Constitution, U.S., 214, 320
constitutional convention (1948), 289, 292, 322, 323, 330, 331
consumer spending, 95, 151, 158, 166, 186–97
containment strategy, 29–32, 33, 37, 41, 255–56, 316, 325–28, 340, 369, 373, 375, 386, 389–90, 403
Conversations with Stalin (Djilas), 73–74
Coolidge, Calvin, 88
Cortesi, Arnaldo, 189, 412
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon), 306
Council of Economic Advisers (CEA), 86
Council of Foreign Ministers (CFM), 8, 10, 77, 126, 153, 254, 296, 297–98, 311, 313, 322–25, 329–34
Council on Foreign and Defense Policy, 388
Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), 199
counter-blockades, 277, 310–14
counterpart funds, 227, 347–48, 351–54, 451–53
covert operations, 41, 262, 315–16
Cox, Edward E., 251, 412
credit support, 11, 76–77, 106–7, 108, 121, 154, 183, 220, 221, 223, 227, 244, 249, 263, 305, 358–59, 362, 363
Crimea, 397–400
Crimean War, 11, 24
Cripps, Stafford, 156, 165, 306, 412
“currency blockade,” 382
currency convertibility, 22, 161–62, 165, 168, 269–70, 364–65, 382–83
“currency curtain,” 153–54
currency devaluation, 11, 161–62,
167, 221, 345, 363, 370
currency reform, 153–55, 159, 161, 220, 255, 270–72, 281, 285, 304, 307–8, 355, 358, 360–61, 367
customs barriers, 66, 100–101
customs union, 159, 162, 165, 173–74, 379
see also Benelux
Czech government-in-exile, 143
Czechoslovakia, 16, 17, 119, 128, 130–31, 132, 135, 137–45, 148, 184, 185, 227, 228, 235–44, 250, 251, 252, 253, 257, 259, 265, 266, 267, 306, 315, 340, 371, 372, 384, 394, 523n
Czech Republic, 385, 391, 400, 401
Dalton, Hugh, 21, 125, 412
Dashkevich, Yuri, 298
Davies, Joseph, 12, 412
Dawes Plan (1924), 321, 358
Dayton, Leon, 355
Deaton, Angus, 375, 412
debt, national, 21, 61, 161–62, 358–59, 362, 446–49, 570n
Declaration of Liberated Europe, 4
Defense Department, U.S., 260
De Gasperi, Alcide, 188–89, 261, 353–54, 412, 568n
de Gaulle, Charles, 47, 122, 164, 185–86, 187, 188, 295, 350–51, 412
deindustrialization, 6, 8–9, 66, 81–82, 150–51, 152
Delta State Teachers College, 93–96
demilitarization, 75, 76, 281, 316
democracy, 4, 8, 36, 37, 60, 105, 119, 126, 142, 180, 182, 192, 194, 197, 206, 229, 242–44, 256, 258, 259, 282, 335, 336, 359, 369, 392, 393, 395, 396, 400
Democratic Party, U.S., 5, 34, 50, 51, 56, 88, 194–95, 199, 215–16, 219–20, 226, 259, 260, 301–2, 317–18
de-Nazification, 80–81, 106, 161
Denmark, 147, 252, 318, 343
Depreux, Édouard, 187, 413
deutschmark (DM), 22, 161–62, 165, 168, 269–76, 278, 279, 283–85, 286, 287, 288, 289, 292, 307–8, 311, 312, 325, 330, 358, 360–65, 382–84
Devil’s General, The (Zuckmayer), 106
Dewey, Thomas E., 213, 219–20, 295, 301, 413
dictatorships, 29, 61, 71, 248, 503n–4n
Djilas, Milovan, 73–74, 130, 182, 289, 413
Doctor Faustus (Mann), 106
Dodd, Norris, 201, 413
dollar diplomacy, 125, 154, 155, 159–60, 162, 164, 176–77, 208–9, 243, 306, 350
“dollar gap,” 200, 343
“dollar imperialism,” 208–9, 243, 306
dollar reserves, 21, 22, 94, 95, 107, 154, 155, 161, 162, 165, 167, 170, 173, 186, 216, 220, 224, 227, 314, 344, 345, 347–48, 357, 363–64, 368, 370
dollar standard, 167–68, 270
domino theory, 42, 44, 144, 261
Dostoyevsky, Fyodor, 28
Douglas, Lewis, 89–90, 152, 159, 166, 172, 214, 230, 247, 249, 252, 280–81, 292, 311, 329, 372, 413, 542n
Draper, William, Jr., 206, 282, 285, 289–90, 296, 413
Drtina, Prokop, 139, 140, 141, 144, 236, 240, 413
Dublin summit, 383