The Marshall Plan

by Benn Steil

  trade unions, 124, 149, 187, 200

  transportation blockades, 254, 269–74, 281–85, 287, 290, 297, 298, 303, 307, 309, 310–14, 322, 324–25, 331–32, 334, 371

  Treasury, British, 363, 366

  Treasury Department, U.S., 8, 11, 26, 61, 88–89, 90, 108, 162, 224, 270, 362, 367, 370, 372

  Trotsky, Leon, 58, 72–73, 127

  Trudeau, Arthur, 282

  Truman, Harry S.:

  Acheson’s relationship with, 25, 32, 34–35, 40, 41, 42–43, 45, 63, 94–96, 125, 225, 262, 312, 334

  Acheson’s views on policies of, 50, 70, 93–94, 225, 262, 302, 306, 312, 320, 322–25, 329–31, 407

  advisers of, 8–9, 12, 18, 32, 41, 89, 97, 102–3, 276–77, 278, 316–17

  background of, 97, 430

  Berlin Airlift approved by, 277–78, 282–83, 287, 312, 332–34

  Berlin policies of, 7–8, 276–78, 282–83, 287, 293–94, 312, 332–34, 379–80

  cabinet of, 39, 42, 281–82, 301–2, 316–17

  Clay’s views on policies of, 64–68, 70, 105–7, 150, 247, 270–75, 282, 324–25, 334

  Clayton’s relationship with, 39, 52, 225, 226, 262

  congressional relations of, 34–36, 42, 49–50, 90, 110–11, 190–95, 197, 212–13, 221–22, 225, 226, 228–29, 247–48, 253, 259–62, 317–18

  as Democratic leader, 34, 219–20, 301–2, 317–18

  economic policies of, 18, 20, 44, 89–92, 172, 258, 269–71, 278, 287

  election campaign of (1948), 219–20, 301

  European postwar conditions as viewed by, 12–13, 18, 62–63, 88, 89–90, 101, 110–11, 172, 242, 247–48, 253, 357–58, 394, 398–99

  FDR compared with, 5, 8, 9, 12, 38, 40, 47, 62, 88–89, 91, 97, 98, 165, 182, 371–72

  foreign aid policies of, 190–95, 225–26, 247–48, 258–62, 357–60

  foreign policy of, 18, 24–25, 32–50, 56, 97, 175–76, 219, 229–30, 293–96, 301–2, 319–20, 398–99

  German reconstruction supported by, 6, 8–9, 80–81, 89–90, 101, 190, 278–81, 287, 291, 293–94, 320–21, 357–60, 373, 379–80

  Greek assistance approved by, 18, 32–36, 38, 39–41, 42, 44, 45–46, 49–50, 175

  Kennan’s relationship with, 41–42, 92–93, 102–3, 262, 265, 267, 276, 320–21

  Marshall Plan approved by, 110–11, 165–66, 175–76, 197, 200–201, 205, 212–13, 219–22, 225–30, 247–48, 253, 258–62, 263, 301–2, 320–21, 346, 357–58, 369–73, 398–99

  Marshall’s relationship with, 34–35, 41, 55, 56, 59, 85, 110–11, 197, 205, 219, 293–96, 300, 301–2, 335

  Molotov’s relationship with, 5–6, 10, 46, 48, 70, 265, 283, 293

  Morgenthau’s policies as viewed by, 8–9, 80–81, 89–90

  NATO supported by, 318–21, 335, 369–70, 379, 389, 394

  at Potsdam conference, 5–9, 20–21, 62–63, 268

  press coverage of, 45–46, 88, 221, 226, 228

  Republican opposition to, 191–95, 197, 221–22, 225, 247–48, 301–2, 317–18, 346

  Soviet policies of, 5, 8–9, 25, 32–34, 62–63, 85, 165, 175–76, 183, 219, 228, 242, 265, 278–83, 370–71, 372, 380

  “Special Address to Congress on the Marshall Plan” (December 19, 1947) of, 197

  “Special Message to Congress” (November 17, 1947) of, 212–13, 220

  Stalin’s relationship with, 5–9, 24–25, 46–47, 62–63, 82, 165, 242, 267–69, 278, 282–83, 293–96, 389

  Truman Doctrine of, 37–53, 82, 91–96, 102–3, 175–76, 183, 212, 220, 247–48, 252, 258, 259–60, 301–2, 370–71, 372, 433–39

  Truman Doctrine speech to Congress (March 12, 1947) of, 37–53, 82, 91–96, 102–3, 433–39

  Turkish assistance approved by, 24–25, 32–36, 38, 39–41, 42, 44, 45–46, 49–50, 175

  Truman, Margaret, 43

  Tunner, William, 292–93, 324, 430

  Turkey, 11, 18, 22–26, 31–38, 39, 40–42, 45, 50, 51–52, 87, 94, 147, 157, 160, 175, 213, 259, 260, 342, 343, 392, 395

  Turkish Straits, 24–26

  Ukraine, 17, 73, 235, 297, 374, 386, 387, 388–89, 395, 396, 397–400, 402

  Ulbricht, Walter, 79, 80, 209, 337, 430

  unemployment rate, 66, 155, 309, 345, 354–55

  unilateralism, 40, 58–59, 281–82, 341

  Union of Soviet-Czechoslovak Friendship, 238–39

  United Nations, ix–x, 2, 6, 18, 40, 49–50, 52, 82, 128, 175, 179–81, 212–13, 215, 228, 268, 281, 283, 287, 295–99, 304, 308–9, 311–12, 317–18, 341

  United Nations Article 51, 317–18

  United Nations Charter, 119, 212, 296, 392, 559n

  United Nations General Assembly, 179, 296

  United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), 40, 100, 128

  United Nations Security Council, x, 2, 4, 6, 24, 25, 49, 295–99, 308–9, 317–18, 392, 394, 559n

  United States:

  air power of, 210, 250, 254, 271, 272–73, 291, 312

  allies of, 231, 373, 375

  anticommunism in, 7–8, 65, 71, 92–93, 193, 211

  Communist Party of (CPUSA), 200, 267

  defense spending by, 90–93, 226, 230, 316, 352, 355

  dollar diplomacy of, 125, 154, 155, 159–60, 162, 164, 176–77, 208–9, 243, 306, 350

  economy of, 159–60, 176–77, 197

  elections (1948) in, 213, 219–20, 258, 282, 295, 301–2, 317, 413

  foreign aid of, 34–35, 37, 38, 39–40, 98–101, 190–95, 225–26, 247–48, 258–62, 344–45, 357–60, 371, 373–75

  “foreign entanglements” prohibition of, 1, 3, 13, 27, 43, 97, 320

  foreign policy of, 1, 3, 13, 18, 24–25, 27, 32–50, 56, 97, 175–76, 219, 229–30, 293–96, 301–2, 319–20, 398–99

  global trade of, 11, 88, 100–101, 165, 173

  gross domestic product (GDP) of, 197

  hegemony as goal of, 46, 90–93, 175–76, 337

  imperialism of, 10, 49, 119–20, 175–76, 180, 182–83, 201, 228, 237, 239

  military aid of, 16, 18–19, 21, 22, 26, 31–39, 40, 42, 44–52, 123–32, 223

  national security of, 33, 35–36, 91–92, 248, 335

  nuclear weapons of, 9–10, 12, 91, 105–6, 235, 282, 294, 321, 337

  sphere of influence of, 2, 7, 47, 60, 241, 250, 340–41, 370–71, 404, 456, 566n

  as superpower, 24, 35–36, 38, 40, 42–43, 161, 576n

  taxation in, 34, 67, 76, 90, 192, 222, 270, 307

  unilateralism of, 40, 58–59, 281–82, 341

  United States of Europe, 101, 155, 402

  U.S. zone, 64–65, 68, 89–90, 104, 209, 270, 286, 308, 329–30, 360–61

  Vandenberg, Arthur, 9, 34, 35, 36, 39, 46, 49, 50, 81, 96–98, 192–93, 194, 196, 197, 212, 213, 221, 222, 226, 229, 232–33, 247–48, 249, 257, 258, 260, 262, 301–2, 317–20, 335, 373, 430

  Vandenberg Amendment (Senate Resolution No. 239), 50, 317–18

  van der Beugel, Ernst, 173–74, 305, 306, 430

  Varga, Evgeny, 121, 430, 520n

  Versailles Treaty, 393

  Vienna, 18, 263

  Vietnam War, 45

  Viner, Jacob, 345

  Vinson, Fred, 293–96, 312, 430–31

  Visegrád countries, 385

  Voice of America (VOA), 228–29, 315, 323

  Volkskammer (People’s Chamber), 336

  vozhd (leader), 58, 182, 312, 337

  Vursell, Charles, 258–59, 431

  Vyshinsky, Andrei, 46, 47–48, 128, 129, 157, 179, 180, 237, 242, 253, 296–98, 312, 313, 322, 329–33, 431

  Waiting for Godot (Beckett), 351

  Wałęsa, Lech, 385, 387, 431

  Wallace, Henry, 8, 49, 94, 214–15, 216, 219–20, 267–69, 293, 431

  Wall Street Journal, 210–11

  War Department, U.S., 3, 12, 67, 86–87, 90, 103–4, 149, 151–52, 206, 228, 242

  Warsaw Pact (1955), 275, 277, 379, 383–84, 387, 392, 393, 399

  Washington, George, 1, 3, 13, 27, 43, 97, 320

  Washing
ton Daily News, 45

  Washington Post, 45, 104, 193, 213

  Waterloo, Battle of, 132

  Webb, James, 319–20, 325

  Wellstone, Paul, 393, 431

  Western Union Defence Organization, 251–52, 253

  wheat, 170, 243–44, 298, 353

  Wherry, Kenneth, 225–26, 431

  White, Harry Dexter, 8–9, 11, 39, 89, 108, 270, 372, 431

  White, Theodore, 193

  White, William, 193, 431

  Wiley, Alexander, 223, 431

  Wilson, Woodrow, 2, 88, 431

  winter conditions (1947), 346, 569n–70n

  Wisner, Frank, 271, 315–16, 431

  Women’s National Democratic Club, 201

  Workers’ Party, 168

  Works Progress Administration (WPA), 192

  World Bank, 137, 197, 341, 569n

  World Trade Organization (WTO), 373

  World War I, 1–2, 6–7, 17, 23, 61, 62, 71, 88, 101, 336, 358, 393

  World War II, 1–2, 6–7, 15–16, 39, 44, 74, 215, 241–42, 296, 317, 326, 342, 344, 357, 369

  World War III, 51, 52, 69, 231, 248, 250, 256, 258, 278, 279–80, 281, 287, 294, 317, 332

  Wörner, Manfred, 398, 431

  Wrong, Humphrey Hume, 309, 432

  “X” (George Kennan), 30–32, 255–56, 326, 328

  Yalta Conference (1945), 3, 6, 24, 47, 58, 61–62, 74, 75, 79, 82, 88, 128, 202, 205–6, 223, 241, 255, 268, 269, 277, 279, 281, 341, 356

  Yanukovych, Viktor, 397, 432

  Yeltsin, Boris, 385, 387, 388, 391, 432

  Yezhov, Nikolai, 339, 432

  Yugoslavia, 16, 40, 48, 78–79, 93, 119, 133, 136, 148, 185, 193, 228, 245, 278, 331, 372, 392, 399

  Zenkl, Petr, 143–44, 236, 432

  Zhdanov, Andrei, 180, 181–85, 186, 230, 235, 257, 432, 509n

  Zhukov, Georgy, 64, 65, 78, 107, 337, 357, 432

  Zorin, Valerian, 237, 238–39, 432

  ILLUSTRATION CREDITS

  INTERIOR

  p. xiv:

  AFP/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/159224463

  p. 14:

  Public Domain

  p. 54:

  Everett Collection Inc./Alamy Stock Photo, accessible at http://www.marshallfilms.org/image/b47_03_10.jpg

  p. 84:

  Courtesy of the George C. Marshall Foundation, Lexington, Virginia

  p. 116:

  David E. Scherman/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/50863581

  p. 146:

  Yale Joel/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.co.uk/license/50773057

  p. 178:

  The Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, file ID number A10-024.16.19.2; http://nixonfoundationblog.org/files/2014/04/RN-Herter-Committee-Northern-Italy-Fields-560x405.jpg

  p. 218:

  Underwood Archives/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/171014673

  p. 234:

  Bettmann Archive/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.co.uk/license/870261732

  p. 246:

  Courtesy of the George C. Marshall Foundation, Lexington, Virginia

  p. 264:

  Framepool, shot number 658-004-880; http://footage.framepool.com/en/shot/658004880-berlin-blockade-freedom-rally-dem-deutschen-volke-reichstag

  p. 300:

  Bettmann/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/514880324

  p. 338:

  Solo Syndication, cartoon by Leslie Gilbert Illingworth, ILW1566: Daily Mail 02/14/1949, accessible at https://timpanogos.wordpress.com/2012/09/08/chess-games-of-the-rich-and-famous-truman-vs-stalin-over-berlin/

  p. 376:

  DPA Picture Alliance/Alamy Stock Photo

  p. 456:

  Public Domain

  p. 457:

  W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

  p. 460:

  Courtesy of Stratfor Worldview, a geopolitical intelligence platform, https://www.stratfor.com/analysis/geopolitics-russia-permanent-struggle

  INSERT 1

  1. Courtesy of the George C. Marshall Foundation, Lexington, Virginia

  2. Courtesy of the George C. Marshall Foundation, Lexington, Virginia

  3. Francis Miller/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/50615616

  4. Bettmann/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/515241892

  5. Keystone-France/Gamma-Keystone/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/106498810

  6. Library of Congress/Corbis Historical Collection/VCG/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/640462363

  7. Hulton Deutsch/Corbis Historical Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/613515080

  8. Walter Sanders/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/53369607

  9. Hulton Deutsch/Corbis Historical Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/613506876

  10. Nat Farbman/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/50519421

  11. Bettmann/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/515242992

  INSERT 2

  1. Bettmann/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/514697924

  2. Bettmann/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/515301662

  3. Bettmann Archive/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/515208442

  4. Thomas D. McAvoy/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/50511717

  5. Francis Miller/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/50447180

  6. U.S. Embassy, accessible at http://spartacus-educational.com/JFKbohlen1.jpg

  7. James Whitmore/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/50514205

  8. U.S. Army Signal Corps, Courtesy of Harry S. Truman Library

  9. George Skadding/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/50493391

  10. U.S. Embassy, accessible at https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Ambassador_Walter_Bedell_Smith.jpg

  11. J. Wilds/Keystone/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/530231441

  12. Abbie Rowe, National Park Service. Harry S. Truman Library & Museum

  13. Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS/Corbis/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/613463476

  14. Bert Hardy/Picture Post Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/3435901

  15. Marie Hansen/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/50497147

  16. Margaret Bourke-White/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/50875038

  17. Bert Hardy/Picture Post Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/3296742

  18. Yale Joel/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/53371537

  19. Yale Joel/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/53371537

  20. Bundesregierung/Rolf Unterberg, photo ID number B 145 Bild-00019708; https://www.bundesarchiv.de/imperia/md/images/abteilungen/abtb/bildarchiv/galerien/bundeskanzler/b_145_bild-00019708_501x0_0_0.jpg

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