by Joel Kotkin
20. Wheatley, The Places Where Men Pray Together, 54–57.
21. Hourani, op. cit., 110–11; Chandler and Fox, op. cit., 270.
22. Hourani, op. cit., 49–50.
23. Janet Abu-Lughod, Cairo: 1,001 Years of the City Victorious (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1971), 6–21.
24. Ibid., 41; André Raymond, Cairo, trans. Willard Wood (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000), 36, 47; Ross E. Dunn, The Adventures of Ibn Battuta: A Muslim Traveler of the 14th Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 41.
25. Raymond, op. cit., 120.
26. Ibid., 123.
27. Dunn, op. cit., 45.
28. Wheatley, The Places Where Men Pray Together, 337.
29. Curtin, op. cit., 114–16.
30. July, op. cit., 58–59; Dunn, op. cit., 122–28; Curtin, op. cit., 121–22.
31. Ghirshman, op. cit., 336–41.
32. Masoud Kheirabadi, Iranian Cities: Formation and Development (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991), 45–65.
33. Thapar, op. cit., 52; Chandler and Fox, op. cit., 301.
34. Stephen P. Blake, Shahjahanabad: The Sovereign City in Mughal India, 1639–1739 (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 1–5.
35. Thapar, op. cit., 239.
36. Dunn, op. cit., 136; Tapan Raychaudhuri and Irfan Habib, The Cambridge EconomicHistory of India, vol. 1, 1200–1750 (Delhi: Orient Longman, 1982), 82–83.
37. Raychaudhuri and Habib, op. cit., 37–42; Curtin, op. cit., 123–25.
CHAPTER EIGHT: CITIES OF THE MIDDLE KINGDOM
1. The Travels of Marco Polo, ed. Manuel Komroff (New York: The Modern Library, 1926), 50–71.
2. René Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes, trans. Naomi Walford (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1970), 41–50, 90–95, 117–20; Kenneth Scott Latourette, The Chinese: Their History and Culture (New York: Macmillan, 1962), 80.
3. Bernard Lewis, What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East (New York: Perennial, 2002), 6.
4. Wheatley, The Pivot of the Four Quarters, 176–78; Ray Huang, 1587, A Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), 4.
5. Latourette, op. cit., 216; Chandler and Fox, op. cit., 270.
6. Gilbert Rozman, “East Asian Urbanization in the Nineteenth Century: Comparisons with Europe,” in Urbanization in History: A Process of Dynamic Interactions,ed. Advan der Woude, Akira Hayami, and Jan de Vries (Oxford, Eng.: Clarendon Press, 1990), 65–66.
7. Sit, op. cit., 22–23.
8. Ma, op. cit., 119–20.
9. Sit, op. cit., 39.
10. Heng Chye Kiang, Cities of Aristocrats and Bureaucrats: The Development of MedievalChinese Cityscapes (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1999), 19–25.
11. Ibid., 1–3.
12. Ma, op. cit., 109–10; Sit, op. cit., 25.
13. Latourette, op. cit., 140–41; Chandler and Fox, op. cit., 270.
14. L. Carrington Goodrich, A Short History of the Chinese People (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1943), 116–17; Latourette, op. cit., 67–68; Ma, op. cit., 117; Sen-Dou Chang, op. cit., 116.
15. Heng Chye Kiang, op. cit., 3.
16. Latourette, op. cit., 186.
17. Ma, op. cit., 30–31; Goodrich, op. cit., 151; Raychaudhuri and Habib, op. cit., 128–31.
18. Ma, op. cit., 34–35; Chandler and Fox, op. cit., 270.
19. The Travels of Marco Polo, op. cit., 153, 159–63, 254–56.
20. Goodrich, op. cit., 154–59.
21. Ma, op. cit., 5–6, 160; Heng Chye Kiang, op. cit., 135, 150, 170, 192.
22. Grousset, op. cit., 252.
23. Dunn, op. cit., 250; The Travels of Marco Polo, xvi; Latourette, op. cit., 215; Raychaudhuri and Habib, op. cit., 135–38.
24. The Travels of Marco Polo, 153, 159–63, 254–56; Curtin, op. cit., 125.
CHAPTER NINE: OPPORTUNITY LOST
1. Ma, op. cit., 11–13; Percival Spear, India: A Modern History (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1961), 153; Raychaudhuri and Habib, op. cit., 141, 170–71; Blake, op. cit., 30; Fernand Braudel, The Perspective of the World: Civilizationand Capitalism:15th–18th Century, vol. 3, trans. Sian Reynolds (New York: Harper & Row, 1984), 534; Hourani, op. cit., 232. Note: Not only were these cities large, but their economies were, for the most part, more affluent than those of Europe. Indeed, as late as 1700, per capita incomes in China and India equaled or excelled those of Britain or France, not to mention the poorer nations of Europe. Given its larger population, Asia’s economies, in aggregate, accounted for a far bigger share of the global economy.
2. Schinz, op. cit., 1–2.
3. Bernard Lewis, The Muslim Discovery of Europe (New York: W. W. Norton, 1982), 60–68, 185–87.
4. Blake, op. cit., 183, 192–94.
5. Saggs, op. cit., 49; ibn Khaldun, op. cit., 135–37, 247; Grousset, op. cit., 323–25.
6. Ma, op. cit., 122.
7. Spear, op. cit., 156–57.
8. Ma, op. cit., 43, 134–37, 162; Ira Marvin Lapidus, Muslim Cities in the Later MiddleAges (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967), 96, 101; Raychaudhuri and Habib, op. cit., 185–87, 277–78.
9. Ibn Khaldun, op. cit., 238.
10. Curtin, op. cit., 127; Latourette, op. cit., 234.
11. Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1974), 55–56.
12. Lapidus, op. cit., 50–65, 78–80, 185–91.
13. Abu-Lughod, op. cit., 48–51; Lewis, What Went Wrong? 13.
14. Lewis, The Muslim Discovery, 195.
CHAPTER TEN: EUROPE’S URBAN RENAISSANCE
1. Pirenne, Mohammed and Charlemagne, 277.
2. Lauro Martines, Power and Imagination: City-States in Renaissance Italy (New York: Knopf, 1979), 13; Dougerty, op. cit., 44; Pirenne, Medieval Cities, 61–64.
3. Fumagalli, op. cit., 81, 92; William H. McNeill, The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force and Society Since A.D. 1000 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 86.
4. John Hale, The Civilization of Europe in the Renaissance (New York: Touch-stone, 1993), 20.
5. Nathan Rosenberg and L. E. Birdzell Jr., How the West Grew Rich: The Economic Transformation of the Industrial World (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 59–60, 68; John Langton and Goran Hoppe, “Town and County in the Development of Early Modern Europe,” in Historical Geography Research Series, no. 11 (1983): 7.
6. Pirenne, Mohammed and Charlemagne, 218–19.
7. Jan de Vries, European Urbanization, 1500–1800 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984), 28–29, 41.
8. Lewis, The Muslim Discovery, 26.
9. Brian Pullan, A History of Early Renaissance Italy: From the Mid-Thirteenth to the Mid-Fifteenth Century (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1973), 104–7.
10. Chandler and Fox, op. cit., 313.
11. Morris, op. cit., 113–14; Paul Zucker, Town and Square, from the Agora to the Village Green (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1970), 99–102.
12. Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy: An Essay, trans. S.G.C. Middlemore, ed. Irene Gordon (New York: New American Library, 1961), 79; Morris, op. cit., 112–17.
13. Pullan, op. cit., 103.
14. Frederic C. Lane, Venice: A Maritime Republic (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973), 93.
15. Mumford, op. cit., 321–23; Braudel, op. cit., 135–36; Lane, op. cit., 165.
16. Braudel, op. cit., 120, 124–27; Alberto Ades and Edward L. Glaeser, “Trade and Circuses: Explaining Urban Giants,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 110, no. 1 (1995): 220.
17. Braudel, op. cit., 132.
18. Ibid., 30, 132.
19. Harold Acton, “Medicean Florence,” in Golden Ages of the Great Cities, 105–8; Fumagalli, op. cit., 91.
20. Frank J. Coppa, “The
Preindustrial City,” in Cities in Transition, 40–41.
21. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Times (Boston: Beacon Press, 1944), 45; Cecil Fairfield Lavell, Italian Cities (Chautauqua, N.Y.: Chautauqua, 1905), 115.
22. Martines, op. cit., 83.
23. Dante, The Divine Comedy: Inferno, trans. John D. Sinclair (New York: Oxford University Press, 1939), 209 (Canto XVI).
24. Martines, op. cit., 169–72.
25. Coppa, op. cit., 42.
26. Étienne François, “The German Urban Network Between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries: Cultural and Demographic Indicators,” in Urbanization in History, 84–100; Alexandra Richie, Faust’s Metropolis: A History of Berlin (New York: Carroll and Graf, 1998), 3, 22–24; Giles MacDonogh, Berlin: A Portrait of Its History, Architecture and Society (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998), 40.
27. Mumford, op. cit., 355.
28. Machiavelli, The Prince, trans. Luigi Ricci (New York: Mentor, 1952), 119.
29. Lane, op. cit., 177.
30. Martines, op. cit., 169; McNeill, Plagues and Peoples, 170–71; Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, vol. 1, trans. Sian Reynolds (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), 334–36.
31. Braudel, The Mediterranean, 388–89.
32. Louis B. Wright, Gold, Glory and the Gospel: The Adventurous Lives and Times of the Renaissance Explorers (New York: Atheneum, 1970), 117; Harold Burdett, “Toward the 21st Century,” Population Institute 2 (1996).
33. Chandler and Fox, op. cit., 313; de Vries, op. cit., 30.
34. Prescott’s Histories: The Rise and Decline of the Spanish Empire, ed. Irwin Blacker (New York: Viking Press, 1963), 258–63.
35. Lopez, op. cit., 322–25; Alfred Fierro, Historical Dictionary of Paris, trans. Jon Woronoff (Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1998), 2–3.
36. Fumagalli, op. cit., 91.
37. Yves Lenguin, La mosaïque France: Histoire des étrangers et de l’immigration en France (Paris: Larousse, 1988), 130, 142; Braudel, The Perspective of the World, 329–30.
38. James L. McClain and John M. Merriman, “Edo and Paris: Cities and Power,” in James L. McClain, John M. Merriman, and Ugawa Kaoru, Edo and Paris: Urban Life and the State in the Early Modern Era (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1994), 4, 12–13.
39. Ibid., 23, 77.
40. Zucker, op. cit., 195.
41. David Hamer, New Towns in the New World: Images and Perceptions of the Nineteenth Century Urban Frontier (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), 36–37.
42. Michel Carmona, Haussmann: His Life and Times, and the Making of Modern Paris, trans. Patrick Camiller (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2002), 10, 113–22, 139, 154–56; Georges Lefebvre, The Coming of the French Revolution, trans. R. R. Palmer (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1967), 98–99.
CHAPTER ELEVEN: CITIES OF MAMMON
1. Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, A History of Russia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), 92–117.
2. Rozman, 71–72.
3. Morris, op. cit., 104–5; de Vries, op. cit., 29, 50.
4. Hale, op. cit., 456.
5. Prescott’s Histories, 155.
6. Hale, op. cit., 168.
7. Henry Kamen, Spain 1469–1714: A Society of Conflict (London: Longman, 1991), 39–42; Barnet Litvinoff, 1492: The Decline of Medievalism and the Rise of the Modern Age (New York: Avon, 1991), 34, 58.
8. Kamen, op. cit., 246–48.
9. Ibid., 170–71; Litvinoff, op. cit., 66; Wallerstein, op. cit., 195; J. H. Parry, The Age of Reconnaissance (New York: Mentor, 1963), 66.
10. Braudel, The Mediterranean, 146–52; Kamen, op. cit., 98–99, 224–25; de Vries, op. cit., 30.
11. Edith Ennen, The Medieval Town, trans. Natalie Fryde (Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Company, 1979), 187; de Vries, op. cit., 30.
12. Braudel, Perspective of the World, 31.
13. Rosenberg and Birdzell, op. cit., 70, n. 30.
14. Hale, op. cit., 170; de Vries, op. cit., 30.
15. Simon Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age (New York: Knopf, 1987), 261; J. M. Bos, “A 14th Century Industrial Complex at Monnickendam and the Preceding Events,” in Medemblik and Monnickendam: Aspects of Medieval Urbanization in Northern Holland, ed. H. A. Heidinga and H. H. van Regteren (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1989), 21.
16. Morris, op. cit., 164; Simon Groenveld, “For Benefit of the Poor: Social Assistance in Amsterdam,” in Rome & Amsterdam: Two Growing Cities in Seventeenth Century Europe, ed. Peter van Kessel and Elisja Schulte (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1997), 206–8.
17. Braudel, Perspective of the World, 184–85; Jonathan Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall (Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University Press, 1995), 113–15.
18. Schama, op. cit., 15, 253, 294, 311.
19. Ibid., 44–46, 300.
20. Braudel, Perspective of the World, 30.
21. Kamen, op. cit., 116–17.
22. Braudel, Perspective of the World, 185–88; Israel, op. cit., 116–17.
23. Israel, op. cit., 350–51.
24. Hale, op. cit., 274–76.
25. Ibid., 78–79, 137; A. R. Meyers, England in the Late Middle Ages (London: Pelican, 1951), 211.
26. Henri and Barbara van der Zee, A Sweet and Alien Land: The Story of Dutch New York (New York: Viking, 1978), 2–3; “New Amsterdam, Frontier Trading Post,” from Nicholas van Wassenaer, Historisch Verhael, in Empire City: New York Through the Centuries, ed. Kenneth T. Jackson and David S. Dunbar (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), 26.
27. Peter Burke, Venice and Amsterdam: A Study of Seventeenth-century Elites (Cambridge, Eng.: Polity Press, 1994), 135–39; van der Zee and van der Zee, op. cit., 492–94; Edwin G. Burrows, and Mike Wallace, Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) 73–74.
28. Oliver A. Rink, Holland on the Hudson: An Economic and Social History of Dutch New York (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press; Cooperstown, N.Y.: New York State Historical Association, 1986), 248–50.
29. F.R.H. Du Boulay, An Age of Ambition: English Society in the Late Middle Ages (New York: Viking, 1970), 66.
30. Meyers, op. cit., 37; Du Boulay, op. cit., 30.
31. Spear, op. cit., 231.
32. McNeill, The Pursuit of Power, 151; Rhoads Murphey, “The City as a Centre of Change: Western Europe and China,” in The City in the Third World, ed. D. J. Dwyer (New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1974), 65.
33. Hale, op. cit., 143.
34. Israel, op. cit., 1011; Braudel, Perspective of the World, 365; Hall, op. cit., 116.
35. Meyers, op. cit., 161–63, 225, 232–33.
36. Hamish McRae and Frances Cairncross, Capital City: London as a Financial Centre(London: Eyre Methuen, 1973), 9.
37. Emrys Jones, Metropolis, (Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University Press, 1990), 93; Zucker, op. cit., 196–98.
CHAPTER TWELVE: THE ANGLO-AMERICAN URBAN REVOLUTION
1. Hale, op. cit., 355; Braudel, Perspective of the World, 548.
2. Braudel, Perspective of the World, 575–81; Karl Marx, Das Kapital, op. cit., 914–30.
3. Jones, op. cit., 94.
4. Du Boulay, op. cit., 41; de Vries, op. cit., 101.
5. John L. and Barbara Hammond, “The Industrial Revolution: The Rulers and the Masters,” in The Industrial Revolution in Britain: Triumph or Disaster? ed. Philip A. M. Taylor (Boston: D. C. Heath & Company, 1958), 40; Mark Giroud, Cities and People: A Social and Architectural History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), 265; Theodore Koditschek, Class Formation and Urban-Industrial Society, Bradford, 1750–1850 (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 79.
6. Arnold J. Toynbee, The Industrial Revolution (Boston: Beacon Press, 1956), 10–11.
7. Koditschek, op. cit., 107.
8. Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working
Class in England, trans. W. O. Henderson and W. H. Chaloner (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1968), 57–61.
9. Hammond and Hammond, op. cit., 41; Koditschek, op. cit., 100; de Vries, op. cit., 179.
10. Alexis de Tocqueville, “Memoir on Pauperism,” in Tocqueville and Beaumont on Social Reform, ed. Seymour Drescher (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1968), 2, 13.
11. Hammond and Hammond, op. cit., 36.
12. Koditschek, op. cit., 133–37, 144.
13. Andrew Lees, Cities Perceived: Urban Society in European and American Thought: 1820–1940 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 29.
14. The Complete Poetry and Prose of William Blake, ed. David V. Erdman (New York: Anchor Books, 1988), 329.
15. Tocqueville, op. cit., 2.
16. Lees, op. cit., 40–41.
17. Hartmut Kaelble, Historical Research on Social Mobility: Western Europe and the U.S.A. in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, trans. Ingrid Noakes (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), 42–43, 62–65, 96–97; Reuven Brenner, Rivalry:In Business, Science, Among Nations (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 43.
18. Gertrude Himmelfarb, The De-moralization of Society: From Victorian Virtues to Modern Values (New York: Knopf, 1995), 39; McNeill, Plagues and Peoples, 275; Thomas S. Ashton, “Workers Living Standards: A Modern Revision,” in The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 481; Lees, op. cit., 40–41.
19. Lees, op. cit., 53–54.
20. Ibid., 44–55.
21. Fierro, op. cit., 18.
22. Henry Nash Smith, Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1950), 32, 127–78.
23. Jonathan Hughes, American Economic History (New York: HarperCollins, 1990), 334.
24. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. The Age of Jackson (New York: Book Find Club, 1945), 315.
25. Bernard Bailyn, Voyagers to the West: A Passage in the Peopling of America on the Eve of the Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1986), 152–54; Brinley Thomas, Economics of International Migration (New York: Macmillan, 1958), 65–66, 575.
26. Joseph Salvo and Arun Peter Lobo, “Immigration and the Changing Demographic Profile of New York,” in The City and the World: New York’s Global Future,ed. Margaret Crahan and Alberto Vourvoulias-Bush (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1997), 88–89.