Masters of the Planet
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Klein, R. 2009. The Human Career, 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Krause, J., C. Lalueza-Fox, L. Orlando, W. Enard, R. E. Green, H. A, Burbano, J.-J. Hublin and 6 others. 2007. The derived FOXP2 variant of modern humans was shared with Neandertals. Curr. Biol. 17: 1908–1912.
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CODA
Marcus (2008) entertainingly details the deficiencies of the human mind. Earth’s erosional history is discussed by Wilkinson (2005), and the genetic underpinnings of violence and their neural correlates by Meyer-Lindburg et al. (2006). Crutzen (2002) summarized justifications for the Anthropocene.
Crutzen, P. 2002. Geology of mankind. Nature 415: 23.
Marcus, G. 2008. Kluge: The Haphazard Evolution of the Human Mind. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
Meyer-Lindburg, A., J. W. Buckholtz, B. Kolachana, A. R. Hariri, L. Pezawas, G. Blasi, A. Wabnitz and 6 others. 2006. Neural mechanisms of genetic risk for impulsivity and violence in humans. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 103: 6269–6274.
Wilkinson, B. H. 2005. Humans as geologic agents: A deep-time perspective. Geology 33 (3): 161–164.
INDEX
A Man Without Words (Schaller), 217
Abric Romaní (Spain), 173
Abrigo do Lagar Velho (Portugal), 168, 248
accommodation, 11, 22–3, 60, 71, 83, 103, 117, 149, 161
Acheulean culture, 124–9, 186, 245–6
Adam’s apple, 36
adaptation, xvii, xx, 32, 35, 44, 59–60, 68–9, 73, 77, 148, 161, 210, 248
“adaptive radiation,” 69
“adaptive zone,” 69
AL 333, 32–3
See Hadar region
Alemseged, Zeresenay, 37, 238
Altai Mountains, 160, 248
Altamira (cave) (Spain), xii-xiii, 180–1
ambush-hunting techniques, 169
American Museum of Natural History, 107
American Sign Language (ASL), 217
ancestry, ix-x, xv-xix, 4–12, 18–9, 25–6, 29, 40–1, 45–6, 55–63, 67, 81–2, 96, 105, 109–10, 130, 132, 148– 52, 167, 175, 185, 189, 192–4, 199, 205, 208, 215–6, 228, 231
“angular gyrus,” 223
animal proteins, 47, 108, 114, 169
antelopes, 47–8, 72
“Anthropocene,” 229–30
Arago (cave) (France), 135
archaeologists, xi-xii, 51, 103, 112, 119, 125, 137–8, 158, 160, 168–70, 194, 196, 204, 209, 214–5, 219, 224, 238
Arctic Circle, 160, 196, 252
Arctic ice cap, 146–51
Ardipithecus (“Ardi”), 8–14, 21, 22, 29–30, 39, 41, 236
Ardipithecus kadabba, 9, 11, 39, 236
Ardipithecus ramidus, 8–10, 22, 236
Asia, 2, 90, 120, 121, 132, 151, 160, 166, 196–7
ASL, See American Sign Language
Atapuerca site (Spain), 151–8
Aterian site (Algeria), 187–9, 192–3, 195, 200, 251, 253
Atkinson, Quentin, 215–6, 254
Aurignacian, 182
Australia, xxii, 110, 196, 205
Australopithecus (“southern ape”), xxi, 20–4, 26–33, 35–41, 49, 59, 67–8, 69–79, 82–3, 87, 89, 93–4, 110, 112, 114, 133, 236, 238, 241
climbing abilities, 49
culture of, 114
and diet, 72–3, 76–7
and East Africa, 74–9
gracile, 70–7, 82–3, 163
omnivory of, 76
robust, 70–7, 87, 112, 241
as “stem” species, 69
variety of, 69–79
Australopithecus afarensis, 24, 26–33, 35–41, 59, 67–8, 69–70, 72–5, 78, 83, 89, 93–4, 110, 133, 236, 238, 241
See “Lucy”
Australopithecus africanus, 70–2, 75
Australopithecus anamensis, 20–4
Australopithecus garhi, 40–1
Australopithecus ramidus, 23, 236
Australopithecus sediba, 71, 78, 241
Awash River, 8–9, 26, 35
baboons, 58, 65, 167–8
baseball, 53–4
See throwing
beads, 199–201, 204–5, 246
Bed II cranium (Olduvai Gorge), 130
bell curve, 228, 231
Berekhat Ram, 142, 246
Biache-St-Vaast fossil (France), 159–60, 248
“bipedal apes” (hominids), 13–19, 20–4, 25–44, 46, 49
See Dikika; Laetoli; Lucy; Woranso-Mille
bipedality, 6–9, 15–24, 25–44, 46, 49, 53–62, 68, 72, 77, 82–3, 85, 89–93, 100, 104, 106, 109, 111, 116–7, 127, 133, 224–5, 236, 238
and footprints, 33–4
full-time, 89–93
and hominids, See “bipedal apes”
part-time, 8
reasons for, 19
rise of the, 25–44
specialized behaviors of, 53–7
Bir el Ater (Algeria), 187
“Black Skull” (KNM-WT 17000), 76–7, 241
bladders, 110
“bladelets,” 201–2
“blades, xxii, 141, 182, 246
Blombos people, 200–6, 253
Bodo skull (Ethiopia), 135–8
body temperature, 16–17
bonobos, 2, 6, 30, 33–4, 43, 50, 65
Bouri fossils, 40–4, 68, 238
brain size, 4–5, 9, 31, 46–7, 60–1, 70, 77–8, 91, 98–104, 106–9, 121, 129–33, 136–7, 145–6, 155, 159–60, 167, 180, 183–4, 190, 207–9, 242, 245
and children, 98–100
and Dmanisi, 121
and energy, 106–9
enlargement of, 129–33
and maturation, 100–1
of Neanderthals, 155, 159–60, 167, 183–4
throughout time, 131
and Turkana Boy, 98–104
brains, human, See cognition;
language; symbolism
breastfeeding, 115, 174
breathing, 103, 242
Broca, Paul, 102
Broca’s area, 102, 137, 209, 223, 242
Buia cranium (Ethiopia), 130, 245
burial, 174–5, 179, 190–1, 203
Burnett, James (Lord Monboddo), ix
bushbaby, 51
butchery, xi, 38–9, 42, 44, 53–6, 68, 107, 116, 128, 139–40, 152–3, 169–70, 172, 174
C3 pathway, 47–8
cane rats, 72
canine teeth, 5–11, 31, 49, 58, 106
cannibalism, 138, 152–4, 172–3, 203, 247
carbon isotopes, 47–8, 169
carnivores, 38, 45–7, 49, 54–5, 59, 61, 108, 111, 113, 116, 123, 156, 169
“carrying angle,” 21, 23, 26–7, 30, 36
cave art (Ice Age), xi-xv, 179–81, 205
“cave men,” 181
cerebral cortex, 101–2, 137, 219, 222–3
Chad, 20
chance, See genetic drift
“Châtelperronian,” 182–3, 251
Chauvet (France), xii, 180–1
Cheney, Dorothy, 65–6
Chesowanja, Kenya, 112, 244
childbirth, 98–9, 113, 115, 164
children, 98–100
chimpanzees, ix-x, 2, 4, 6–7, 9–13, 16–18, 33, 47–59, 62, 64–70, 73, 96, 111, 113–4, 123–4, 142, 165, 194, 219
and early hominids, 47–59
and savagery, 56–7
shared ancestry with humans, ix-x
and sociality, 113–4
and spears, 50–1
China, 135–6, 196, 252
choking, 212
Clarke, Ron, 71–2
“cleavers,” 125
“click” languages, 216
climate change, 227
climatic change, 3, 121–3, 146, 155
See Ice Age
climbing, 3, 8, 10, 13–4, 19, 23, 28, 30, 36, 49, 49, 61, 106
coding genes, 95–7
cognition, x-xv, xx, xxii, 43, 49–50, 55–6, 61–8, 100, 109, 111, 114, 124–7, 130, 133, 137, 141–3, 164, 175, 180, 184–6, 193, 199, 202, 204–6, 208–10, 213–5, 218–25, 229, 232, 240
and the brain, 221–5
and early hominids, ix-xv, 61–8
and handaxes, 125–6
and intentionality, 213–4
and intuition, 66, 220–1
See language; subjectivity; symbolism
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (Long Island), 87, 242
Collard, Mark, 88–9
comparative linguistics, 215
compassion, 123–4
See empathy
competition, xviii, 48, 78, 128–9, 132, 155, 173, 198, 212–3, 228
continental crust erosion, 230
Congo, 202–4
Contrebandiers Cave (Morocco), 188
cooking, 46, 111–3, 170–1, 239
See fire
copulation, 18, 53, 76, 168, 240
cranium, 3, 7, 11, 14, 31–2, 40, 70, 74, 76–8, 83, 91, 120–1, 123, 129–30, 135–6, 155–6, 162–4, 169, 177, 185–91, 208–9, 212, 223, 238, 248–9
Cranium V, 191
creativity, xi-xv, 128, 141, 205–6, 220, 229, 232
See cave art; symbolism
Cro-Magnons, 179–84, 202–3, 205–6
Cueva Mayor cave, 154
“cultural” transmission, 50
“culture,” 100
cutting flakes, 38, 56
Daka cranium (Ethiopia), 130
Dali skull (China), 135
Dar-es-Soltan II (Morocco), 188, 192
Dart, Raymond, 57
Darwin, Charles, xvii, 15, 18, 64, 81, 94–5
de Lumley, Henry, 139
deafness, 216–8, 220–1
“debitage,” 56
Denisova cave (Siberia), 166, 248–9
dental enamel, 2–4, 7–9, 22, 155, 173
See teeth
Diepkloof, 203–5, 253
diet, 4–5, 8, 32, 38, 45–55, 58–9, 61–2, 72–3, 76–7, 106–16, 122, 138, 140, 152–6, 168–73, 201, 203, 242, 247, 249
and Australopithecus, 72–3, 76–7
and early hominids, 45–9
and food preparation, See butchery; cooking; fire and food acquisition, See hunting; scavenging
generalist style of, 72–3
and gut reduction, 107–8, 111
and Homo ergaster, 106–13
and protein, 45–7, 53, 62, 95–6, 108–14, 168–71
See cannibalism; carnivores; herbivores; omnivores; vegetarianism
digestion, 45–9, 111–3
Dikika, 35–9, 41–4, 67–8, 84, 238
diversity, ix-xi, xvi, xx, xxi, 5, 14, 69–73, 83–8, 131, 165, 173, 189, 193–5, 216
Dmanisi skull (D3444/D3900), 119–24, 151, 245
DNA, 6, 8, 11–2, 95–7, 109–10, 161–2, 164–6, 168, 173, 181, 185, 192–6, 207
See mitochondrial DNA
Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 87, 242
Dubois, Eugene, 4, 6, 84, 89, 242
East Africa, 74–9
East Turkana, 76
EKP, See Enkapune Ya Muto
El Sidrón (Spain), 172–6, 183–4, 249
empathy, 113–4, 124, 158, 175, 222
endocasts, 101–2, 137, 223, 245
endurance hunting, 108–10
See hunting
energy/energetics, 15–6, 21, 34, 47, 98–9, 106–11, 116, 165, 212, 221
English language, 215–16
English Piltdown “fossil” (1912), 4
engravings, xxii
Enkapune Ya Muto (EKP), 203–5
enzymes, 46
erosion, 1, 28, 181, 230, 255
Ethiopia, 1–2, 9, 21–2, 26–7, 35, 37, 39, 41–4, 73–5, 77, 103, 130, 135–7, 167, 186, 236, 238
Eurasia, 3, 119, 122–4, 146–8, 166, 193, 205, 246, 253
Europeans, first, 151–4
evolution, and radical change, xi, xv, 41, 94–104, 185–6, 207–11, 221–5
See adaptation; ancestry; “exaptations”; natural selection
Evolutionary Synthesis, 86–8, 94–5, 97, 130, 242
“exaptations,” 44, 68, 210
“executive” brain functions, 223
extinction, 2, 6, 81–2, 89, 145, 148, 154–5, 159, 164, 185, 194, 197–8, 207
femur, 21, 26, 29, 36, 39
fingers, 8–11, 22, 30, 36, 43–4, 166
Finland, 160
fire, xxi, 46, 111–3, 138, 142, 153, 170–1, 202, 214–5, 244
See cooking
fishing, 108
“fishing” for termites, 51
flies, 96
floods, 230
“flowstones,” 156
Fongoli, Senegal, 50–1, 57, 240
Font de Gaume (cave) (France), xiii
footprints, 33–5, 94, 238, 242
forests, 2, 6–10, 14–5, 17, 19, 23, 26, 31–2, 34, 45, 47–52, 54, 57–8, 61–2, 70, 73, 77, 94, 105–6, 114, 122, 147
fossil record, x-xi, 2–3, 20–1, 25–6, 119–20
FOXP2 gene, 209–10, 254
France, xii-xiv, 125, 138–9, 158–60, 176, 180–3, 246, 248, 251
frontal lobe, 102, 223
fruit, 2, 8, 17, 19, 23, 32, 50, 52, 72, 108
Gallup, Gordon, 64
Garcia, Gisselle, 131, 247
genera, xvi, 2–3, 86–7, 89, 241
generalists, 8, 32, 59, 72–3, 117, 123, 148, 221
genes, xi, xv, xviii, xix-xx, 41, 86, 94–104, 149, 161–2, 164, 166–7, 185–6, 189, 207–13, 216, 221–5, 242, 248–9, 254
coding genes, 95–7
and genetic drift, xix-xx
and “fixed” changes, 207–8
and radical change, xi, xv, 41, 94–104, 185–6, 207–11, 221–5
and language, 209–13
genetic bottleneck, 194–5, 216, 251
genetic drift, xix-xx
genetics, xvii, 44, 68, 86–7, 95–8, 148, 160, 166–8, 185, 194, 206–10, 216, 223, 2
31
genomes, xviii, xx, 96–7, 164–7, 173, 229, 248–9
and change resistance, xviii
genus, xvi, 5–6, 9, 20–1, 40, 42, 49, 61, 73–5, 77–9, 82–9, 91, 99, 101, 103–4, 111, 129–34, 145–6, 148–9, 152, 185, 200, 212
Georgia, Republic of, 119, 122
Geschwind, Norman, 222–3, 254
Gibraltar, 160
glacial cycle, xxi, 146–51, 160–1, 188, 196, 228
Goldschmidt, Richard, 97, 242
Gona (Ethiopia), 41–4, 103, 238
Goode, Douglas, 49
gorillas, 2, 11, 12–3, 23, 33, 36, 59, 65, 71, 109
gracile australopith, 70–7, 82–3, 163
See Australopithecus africanus
gradualists, 87–8, 95, 130
Gran Dolina (Spain), 152–5, 172, 247
grasslands, xxi, 3, 8, 15, 17, 22, 50, 54, 58, 93–4, 122, 146
Great Apes, 2
See bonobos; chimpanzees; gorillas; orangutans
Great East African Rift Valley, 1–22, 55, 119, 203, 236
Grotte du Renne (France), 182, 251
groups, large, xvi, 4–5, 52, 55, 58–61, 69, 114–6, 166, 171–3, 197, 230
gut reduction, 107–8, 111
Hadar region, 26–7, 30–3, 35, 38–40, 44, 75, 238
hair, 17, 109–10, 161–2, 249
hamadryas baboons, 167–8
“handaxes,” 124–9, 137, 139, 157, 175–6, 186, 245
hands, 11–5, 22, 30, 36–7, 43–4, 51, 54–5, 73, 93–4, 108
hand-eye coordination, 54–5
“handy man,” See Homo habilis
Hart, Donna, 57–9
Hawaii, 216
Heidelberg, Germany, 135
herbivores, 45–7, 72, 122–3, 170–1
Herto fossils, 186–7, 189
Hobbits of Flores, xxii, 133, 197, 245
Holmes, John, 107
Holocene epoch, 148, 229
“holotype,”35
Homo (genus), xvi, xxi, 5–6, 40–2, 49, 61, 73–9, 81–104, 111, 128–33, 145–9, 152
defining, 81–7
“early,” xxi
and Ernst Mayr, 87–90
and full-time bipedality, 89–90
and radical change, 94–104
Homo antecessor, xxi, 152–4, 247
Homo erectus, xxi-xxii, 25, 82, 87, 89–91, 98–100, 103, 120–1, 127–33, 196–7, 242
as “Peking Man,” 90, 196
Homo ergaster, 90–104, 105–17, 121, 124, 127–30, 163, 185, 242
and body hair, 109–10
and childbirth, 115
diet of, 106–13
diorama of, 107
and fire and cooking, 111–3