Masters of the Planet
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and hunting, 108–10, 113, 115
and predation, 106, 108–9, 112–5, and radical change, 94–104
skeleton of, 92
and the social setting, 113–7
See Turkana Boy
Homo floresiensis (“Hobbit”), xxii, 133, 197, 245
Homo georgicus, 120–1
Homo habilis (“handy man”), 75, 78, 82–4, 89, 131, 241–2
Homo heidelbergensis, xvi, xxii, 135–8, 141–3, 158, 160, 172, 246
Homo neanderthalensis, 132, 145, 152, 154, 156, 158, 159–77, 185
Homo rudolfensis, 84, 89, 242
Homo sapiens, xvi, xxii, 11, 12, 25–6, 39, 41, 48, 63, 81, 83, 87–8, 90, 98, 100–1, 103, 105–6, 132, 137, 152, 155, 161–8, 171, 185–98, 199, 203, 205, 207–13, 216, 218–20, 227–32, 248–9, 251–2
anatomically modern, 186–93
and bones, 105–6
brains of, See cognition; language; symbolism
and childbirth, 164
cross-section of head of, 211
emergence of, 185–98
future of, 227–32
and genetic “jump,” 207–9
genome of, 167
maturation rate of, 163–4
and molecular evidence, 193–8
and Neanderthals, 161–8, 171
skeleton of, 161
See Late Stone Age; Middle Stone Age
Homo transvaalensis, 87
Hominida, xvi
Hominidae, 6–7
hominids
and bipedality, 13–9 See “bipedal apes”
and chimpanzees, 47–59
“cosmopolitan,” 135–43
and diet, 45–9
and early societies, 57–61
family tree of, 12
first, 3–6
and interiority, 61–8
lifestyles of, 45–68
and specialized behavior, 53–7
survival strategies of, 59–61
types of, 6–13
“hominin,” 3
“hominoid” apes, 2
“human,” the term, 81–2
human lice, 109–10, 244
“human universals,” 229
hunter gatherers, xxii, 109, 115, 174, 227, 230
hunting, xii, 48, 51–2, 59, 108–10, 113, 115, 138, 142, 153, 169–70, 174, 227, 230
Huxley, Thomas Henry, xvii, 94–5, 97
hybridization, 167–8, 191–2, 248–9
“hyper-robust” australopith, 74–6
hyraxes, 47–8, 53, 72
Iberia, 151–2, 181
Ice Age, xi-xv, xxii, 132, 145–58, 161, 179–80, 205, 231
cave art, xi-xv, 179–80, 205
Ildefonso case, 216–8, 254
iliac blades, 13, 28–9
India, 124, 150, 196, 205
Indonesia, 133, 195
innovation, 43, 62, 68, 81, 94–5, 97, 103–4, 108, 112, 126, 128, 135, 138, 140–1, 145, 167, 187, 194, 204, 207–8, 210, 220, 231–2
intelligence, 60–1, 137, 142, 221
See cognition; language; symbolism
intention, 227
intentionality, 213–4
intuition, 66, 220–1
Iraq, 171, 249
Isimila, Tanzania, 128, 245
“island dwarfing,” 133
isotopes, 47, 72, 149–50, 156, 169, 171
Israel, 112, 138, 142, 160, 189–92, 196, 200
See Jebel Qafzeh
Isthmus of Panama, 146
Italy, 169
James, William, 65
Japan, 212
Java, 4, 89–90, 98–9, 120, 129–32
jaws, 2–5, 8–9, 21–2, 31, 33, 35–6, 40, 75, 77, 82–3, 89, 106, 120, 131, 135, 137, 152, 155, 246–7
See Mauer jaw
Jebel Irhoud (Morocco), 188–9, 192
Jebel Qafzeh (Israel), 9, 189–93
Jinniushan (China), 135–6
Johnson, Samuel, 82
“junk” DNA, 96
Kabwe skull (Zambia), 135
Kalahari (southern Africa), 115
Kanzi (bonobo), 43, 50, 66, 238
Katanda (Congo), 202–4
Keith, Sir Arthur, 5
Kenya, 2, 8, 20–2, 23, 41, 46, 75–6, 78, 84, 92, 107, 112–13, 116, 121, 125, 128, 141–2, 203, 236, 246
Kenya National Museums in Nairobi, 78
Kenyan Rift Valley, 203
Kenyanthropus, 78, 89, 241–2
Kenyanthropus platyops (“flat-faced Kenyan man”), 78
Klasies River Mouth, 203, 253
KNM-ER 1470, 78, 83–4, 89, 91, 242
KNM-WT 15000, See “Turkana Boy”
“knuckle-walking” features, 11, 13, 43–4
La Quina, 177, 184, 249
Laetoli, 33–5, 39–40, 75, 238
language, ix-xiv, 7, 40, 43, 100, 102–3, 143, 183, 207–25, 254
and cave art, xiii-xiv
and humankind, ix
and larynxes, 209–13
symbols, and the brain, 216–25
and “theory of mind,” 213–6
and words, 219–20
larynx (voice box), 209–13, 254
Lascaux (cave) (France), xii-xiv, 180–1
Late Stone Age (LSA), 203–4
Law of Unintended Consequences, 227
LB1, 133–4
Leakey, Louis, 74–5, 82–3, 88, 236
Leakey, Mary, 74–5, 236
Leakey, Meave, 89
Lehringen spear, 139–40
leopards, 48–9, 53, 167, 240
Levant, 121–2, 175, 189, 192–3, 213, 218, 251
Liang Bua Cave (Flores Island) (Indonesia), 133
lice, human, 109–10, 244
ligers, 167
Linnaeus, Carolus, 81–2
lion, 15, 47, 55, 111, 113, 167–70, 248–9
“Little Foot” skeleton, 71–2
“Little Ice Age,” 147
London Zoo, 64
LSA, See Late Stone Age
“Lucy,” 26–31, 33, 35, 39–40, 73, 78, 93–4, 110, 133, 238
macaques, 58, 64, 108
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 221–3
Malapa site (South Africa), 71
mammals, xvi, 1, 3, 16–17, 38, 41, 54, 69, 99–101, 106, 108–9, 120, 120–2, 133, 139–40, 146–8, 152, 155, 157, 167, 169–70, 194, 223
“Man the Toolmaker,” 4, 41, 74, 83–4, 242
“Marine Isotope Stages” (MIS), 151, 159, 161, 169, 195–7, 201, 204
Mauer jaw, 135, 137, 246
See Homo heidelbergensis
Mayr, Ernst, 87–8
McGranaghan, Don, 70, 74, 84, 92, 136, 180, 188, 190- 191
Mediterranean coast, 121–2, 138, 147, 161, 171, 189–90, 193, 200, 246
meerkats, 18
Melanesians, 166
microcephalin gene, 167, 248–9
Middle Awash Valley, 39–41
Middle Pleistocene, 160
Middle Stone Age (MSA), 186–7, 200–5, 251
See Blombos; Cro-Magnons; Katanda; Pinnacle Point
migration out of Africa, 119–24, 185–98
“Millennium Man,” 8
Miocene epoch, 2–6, 13
mirror self-recognition (MSR), 64–5
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), 164–5, 173, 194–5, 248–9
See DNA
molars, 2–5, 7–11, 22, 31–2, 71, 75–6, 164, 166
“molecular clock,” 109–10
Molefe, Nkwane, 71
Monboddo, Lord, See James Burnett
monkeys, 2, 18–19, 48, 52, 58–9, 64–6, 167–8, 240
monogamy, 18
“monsoon cycle,” 3
Moroccan Grotte des Pigeons, 200
Motsumi, Stephen, 71
Mount Toba, 195, 251
Mousterian tools, 175–7, 181–2, 186–7, 189–90, 192, 248, 251
Mowbray, Ken, 157, 162
MSA, See Middle Stone Age
MSR, See mirror self-recognition
mtDNA, See mitochondria
l DNA
Mugharet-es-Skhl, See Skhl
mutations, xix-xx, 95–8, 110, 165
Nassarius shells, 200–1, 204, 207
natural selection, xvii, xix, 41, 44, 86, 88, 95, 231
Neander Valley (Germany), 165
Neanderthals, xxii, 25, 28, 87–90, 103, 132, 136, 140, 145–6, 152, 154–8, 159–77, 179–84, 185–93, 197, 201, 208–11, 218, 248–9, 254
brain size of, 155, 159–60, 167, 183–4
build of, 161–2
and burial, 174–5
as “cold-adapted,” 161
and Cro-Magnons, 179–84
cross-section of head of, 211
and defleshing, 172
diets of, 155, 168–73
DNA samples, 161–2
genes of, 161–6
and Homo Sapiens, 161–8, 171
lifestyles of, 171–5
and materials, 175–7 See Mousterian tools
and maturation, 163–4
origins of, 154–8
and physical disability, 171
skeleton of, 162
social units of, 173–4
teeth of, 170–1
neuroanatomists, 102, 219
Nicaragua, 216–8, 220–1
Nile Corridor, 192
nitrogen isotopes (15N/14N), 169–70
normal distribution, 228
North Africa, 175, 187–9, 192, 200, 253
nosce te ipsum (know thyself), 81
nucleotides, 166
occipital lobe, 223
Old Stone Age, 179, 202
Old World, xxii, 2, 124, 135, 142, 195, 197
“Oldowan” tools, 42, 126, 128, 137, 152, 244
Olduvai Gorge, 33, 42, 74–5, 82–3, 116, 130, 241
Olduvai Hominid 5, 74–6, 83
See “Zinjanthropus”
Olorgesailie cranium (Kenya), 128–30, 245
omega-3 fatty acids, 108
omnivores, 32, 48, 58, 61–2, 76–7, 171
Omo Basin (Ethiopia), 41, 75, 186, 241
On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 81
orangutans, 2–3, 19, 64–5, 108
orders, xvi
Oreopithecus, 5, 12–3, 19, 236
Orrorin tugenensis (“Millennium Man”), 8
ovulation, 18, 115, 174
paleoanthropology, 6, 11, 15, 17, 19, 22, 25–6, 35, 38–9, 41, 45, 54, 59, 75, 78, 82–91, 98, 130, 154, 170–1, 187, 191, 233, 235
Paranthropus, 49, 70–1, 73–7, 240
Paranthropus aethiopicus, 75, 77
Paranthropus boisei, 74–7
Paranthropus robustus (“robust nearman”), 70–1
parasitologists, 110
parietal (upper side) lobe, 223
patas monkeys, 58
“Peking Man,” 90, 196
See Homo erectus
pelvic skeleton, xvii, 13, 23, 24, 28–30, 35, 40, 60, 77–8, 93–4, 97–9, 155, 162–3, 238
personal ornamentation, 199–205
Petera cu Oase (Romania), 168
Petralona skull (Greece), 135
pharynx, 211–2
phonemes, 215–6
physical disability, 36, 122–4, 171
Picasso, Pablo, xii
“picks,” 125
Pierolapithecus, 3, 19, 236
Pinnacle Point complex, 201–3, 205–6, 253
Pithecanthropus erectus (“upright apeman”), 4
Pithecanthropus rudolfensis, 84
plaques (Blombos), 201–2, 253
Pleistocene, 120, 147–9, 151, 160–1, 165, 168, 194, 208, 231
Pliocene epoch, 3, 14, 17, 36, 56, 78
population bottleneck, 194–5, 216, 251
population size, 56–7, 86, 97, 115, 148–9, 170, 194–5, 216, 227–32, 251
“postcanine megadonty” (big chewing teeth), 31
postcranial bones, 21, 40, 71, 91, 156
Povinelli, Daniel, 66–8, 240
“power-scavenging,” 54–5, 54–6, 116
See also scavenging
“precision grip capability,” 5
predators/predation, xvii-xviii, xx, 14–8, 22, 45, 47, 52–4, 57–61, 97, 106, 108–9, 112–5, 148–9, 155, 169–71
prefrontal cortex, 137, 219, 223–4
premolars, 11, 22, 31, 71
“prepared-core” implements, 141
prey species, xx, 47, 49, 51–3, 59, 108–9, 112–5, 170
“private speech, 220–1
“proconsuloids,” 2
prosociality, 213–4, 244
protein, 45–7, 53, 62, 95–6, 108–14, 168–71
quadruped, 7, 11, 13, 15–19, 21, 23, 58
Queensland (Australia), 110
radical change, and evolution, xi, xv, 94–104, 185–6
raw meat, 111
red colobus monkey, 52
Reilingen fossil (Germany), 159–60, 248
reproductive advantage, xvii-xviii, 52–3, 58, 60, 130–2, 208
Rift Valley, See Great African Rift Valley
risk, assessing, 100, 227
robust australopith, 70–7, 87, 112, 241
See “Zinjanthropus”
“Rubicon” idea, 5
running, 15–6, 23, 30, 37–8, 108–10
Russia, 84, 160, 248
“sagittal crest,” 71
Sahara, 187–8, 193, 195, 204
Sahelanthropus tchadensis, 6–8, 14, 236
St.-Césaire fossils (Neanderthal), 170
Salles, Diana, xiii, 16, 27, 49, 139, 211
sampling error, xix-xx
savanna, 16–7, 45, 47, 49–50, 54, 58, 60–2, 70, 73, 93, 107–17, 147
scavenging, 48–9, 54–6, 107, 116, 169–70, 239–40
Schaller, Susan, 217–18, 254
Schoeningen spears, 139–40, 158, 248
“secondarily altricial,” 99–100
Selam fossil, 36–8
sentinels, 58, 60
Serengeti, 17, 93, 147
“serial founder effect,” 216
sexual dimorphism, 18, 76
sexuality, 18, 53, 76, 100, 164
Seyfart, Robin, 65–6
Shanidar cave (Iraq), 171, 249
shoulder joints, 2, 30, 36, 39, 60, 93–4
Siberia, 160, 166, 196
sign language, 216–18
Silk Road, 120
Sima de los Huesos (“Pit of the Bones”), 154–8, 160, 173
Sima del Elefante, Spain, 151–2
Sinai Peninsula, 122, 192
Skhl (Mugharet-es-Skhl) (Israel), 190–3, 199–200
skulls, 3, 7, 9–11, 14, 24, 31–2, 37, 39–40, 49, 70, 74, 76–8, 83–4, 89–91, 101, 120–3, 129–30, 132, 135–8, 155–7, 162–4, 168–9, 177, 184, 185–91, 207–9, 212, 223, 227, 241, 245
See “Black Skull”; Dmanisi skull
sleeping, 60, 172
snow leopards, 167
social behavior, xviii, 18, 32, 48, 53, 56–61, 64–7, 99–100, 113–7, 121, 122–4, 128–9, 137, 170–1, 173, 196, 213–4, 222, 230–1, 239–40, 244
and antisocial behavior, 230–1
and bipedality, 18
and early societies, 57–61
and organization, 60
“prosociality,” 213–4, 244
and protection, 61
and setting, 113–7
and symbolic capabilities, 213–4
South Africa, 20, 49, 70–4, 76–7, 83, 112, 115, 203–4, 240–1, 247
Spain, xii-xiii, 151–7, 172–6, 180–4, 247, 249
spears, xxii, 50–1, 139–40, 158, 176, 187, 240, 248
See Lehringen spear; Schoeningen spears
specialization, 21, 24, 40, 48, 59, 117, 128, 171
speech, 102–3, 209, 211–2, 220–3
spinal cord, 7, 103
“spindle” neurons, 222
spine, 7, 12, 37, 97
Spy cave (Belgium), 171, 249
Steffey, Jennifer, 10, 12, 23, 123, 150, 233
Steinheim fossil (Germany), 159–60
“stem” species, 6
9
Sterkfontein site (South Africa), 70–2
sticklebacks, 97, 242
stomachs, 46, 107–8, 110–1
stone knapping, 142, 172, 174
stone tools, xxi, 4, 38–9, 41–4, 49–50, 53, 55–6, 62, 67–8, 73–4, 77, 83–4, 90, 103, 111, 116, 120, 121, 124–8, 137–8, 140, 142, 152, 157, 169, 172, 174, 177, 186, 190, 192, 202, 205, 224, 238–9, 245
strokes, 219
sub-Saharan Africa, 166, 192, 204
subjectivity, 61–8
See language; mindset; symbolism
“suprainiac fossa,” 156
Sussman, Bob, 57–9
Swartkrans, 49, 73, 112, 241, 244
sweating, 109–10
“Swiss Army Knife of the Paleolithic,” 125–6
“switch” genes, 96, xviii-xix
“symbolic” gene, 209–11, 223–4
symbolism, xiv, xxii, 63–4, 66, 103, 113, 127, 142–3, 153, 157–8, 164, 172, 175, 177, 179–84, 185, 195, 199–206, 207–25, 227, 232, 247, 251, 254
“awakening” of, 213–6
development of, 207–25
and FOXP2 gene, 209–10, 254
and intentionality, 213–4
origins of, 199–206
See Blombos people; Pinnacle Point
and sociality, 213–4
“symbolic” gene, 209–11, 223–4
and “theory of mind,” 213–4
transition to, 216–21
See cave art; cognition; language
Tanzania, 33, 35, 42, 74–5, 83, 128
Taylor, Jill Bolte, 219
technology, xi, 42–3, 50–1, 56, 62, 103–4, 105, 110, 113, 117, 119, 121, 124, 127–8, 138, 140–2, 149, 152, 177, 179, 181, 186–7, 192–3, 202, 206, 215, 224, 232, 239
teenagers, and risk, 100
teeth, 2–10, 21–22, 31–3, 35, 39–40, 46–7, 49, 51, 57–8, 70–2, 74–6, 78, 82, 89, 91, 93, 98, 106, 120, 122–123, 152, 155–6, 163–4, 166, 169–70, 173, 203, 212, 238, 248–9
canine, 5–10, 31, 49, 58, 106
enamel, 2–4, 7–9, 22, 155, 173
and Lucy, 31–3, 35
molars, 2–5, 7–11, 23, 31–2, 71, 75–6, 164, 166
premolars, 10–11, 22, 31, 71
temporal lobe, 223
Terra Amata hut, France, 138–9, 158, 246
depiction of, 139
“theory of mind,” 213–4
thorax, 103
throwing, 43, 53–4, 94, 113, 140, 240
thumbs, 36–7, 43
tibia, 21, 26, 36
Toba supereruption (Indonesia), 195
Tobias, P. V., 241
tool-making, xxi-xxii, 4–5, 15, 38–9, 41–4, 49–56, 62, 67–8, 73–5, 77, 83–4, 90, 103–4, 105–6, 111, 116–7, 120, 122, 124–9, 137–42, 152, 157, 160, 169, 172, 174–7, 179, 182–4, 186–90, 192, 201–5, 215, 224, 238–9, 245
advances in, 124–9
See “handaxes”; “Man the Toolmaker”; Mousterian tools; “Oldowan” tools; spears
topography, 1–3, 147, 161, 205
torsional fractures, 42
“Toumaï,” 6–8, 21
“trampling marks,” 38