Manifest Destiny: HEGEMONY

by Brian Boyington

  Both sides claim victory. The Germans sink 14 of the 151 British ships, including four Dreadnoughts. The High Seas Fleet loses 11 of 99 ships, including one Dreadnought, with three severely damaged. SMS Seytlitz, hit twenty-four times barely makes it back to Wilhelmshaven. Only superior construction and multiple watertight compartments save her from sinking. She is in dry dock four months during repairs.

  SMS Seydlitz returning to Wilhelmshaven after the Battle of Jutland

  In reality, both claims are correct. The High Seas Fleet wins a tactical victory. However, strategically the Royal Navy retains its dominance of the North Sea, and the naval blockade of Germany remains intact. More importantly, from the after action reports from HMS Royal Princess the Royal Navy finally learns why their ships blow up and plan design changes for new warships, and prohibit the sloppy handling of explosives and propellants.

  On November 7, 1916, the Presidential election competed President Taft and Vice President La Follette against the Democrat candidate William Jennings Bryan, who ran for the fourth time. The American public did not want any part of the European war. Taft campaigned on the theme He kept us out of the war. Vice President La Follette, an ardent voice of America First, campaigned across the country touting the value of peace.

  Bryan campaigned against high tariffs and corruption in the Republican Party. The voters re-elected Taft and LaFollette with 55% of the vote.

  The Mexican civil war continued and the nation dissolved into fiefdoms controlled by various generals. The United States occupation of Chihuahua and Sonora became permanent. President Taft appointed General Pershing as the military governor of both previously Mexican states.

  An additional 50,000 soldiers reinforced Pershing in preparation for military actions to end the bloodshed. A United States Navy task force led by the battleships USS Florida and USS Utah, plus the aircraft carrier USS Langley assembled at Galveston, TX. Five-thousand Marines gathered, waiting for transport ships.

  On November 16, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria dies at the age of 86 from complications of pneumonia. The Archduke Franz Ferdinand assumes the throne as Emperor Franz Ferdinand I. His coronation would wait for the mandatory 30-day period of mourning

  With 1916 drawing to a close on the Western Front, battle lines are essentially in the same areas as the start of the year. Casualties on both sides total in the millions, and the combatant's economies are on the brink of collapse. King Albert of Belgium sends a secret telegram to President Taft asking him to chair a peace conference in Washington DC. Coincidentally, Kaiser Wilhelm II also sent a note suggesting that President Taft organize a peace conference.

  Encouraged, President Taft instructed Secretary of State Knox to send out peace feelers to the ambassadors of the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire, Japan, and Russia, to determine if an appetite for a peace conference existed.

  Chapter 29

  In January 1917, backdoor diplomacy between Secretary of State Knox and the combatant ambassadors in Washington DC seemed to have promise. Belgium favored negotiations. The French gave a non-committal answer. The German Ambassador Johann Heinrich von Bernstorff enthusiastically endorsed the proposal. The British Ambassador, Sir Cecil Spring Rice indicated that the Crown would give the proposal serious consideration; then provided approval when he realized his rival Johann Heinrich von Bernstorff would attend. The Russian Ambassador George Bakhmetev would not commit as Tsar Nicholas was incommunicado leading the Russian Army at the front.

  The new Austria-Hungary Ambassador Count Adam Tarnowski arrived on January 27 as the personal representative of Emperor Franz Joseph I. He presented his credentials to President Taft, then requested a meeting with Taft and Knox. Taft granted the request, and he and Knox met Count Tarnowski the next day.

  Following coffee and doughnuts, Count Tarnowski forwarded a dramatic proposal. First, Emperor Franz Joseph wanted to withdraw from the war status quo. He would agree to a cease-fire if the other combatants would also agree. When asked about the Empire’s captured territory in Romania, Count Tarnowski agreed to vacate the conquests.

  Secretary of State Knox then brought up Serbia, which was a delicate topic due to the assassination attempt on Franz Joseph, and the murder of his beloved wife, Sophie. Anticipating this topic, Count Tarnowski indicated that the Emperor would be generous, and restore Serbia’s independence in return for a non-aggression pact.

  Knox and Taft were impressed with Count Tarnowski’s sincerity. Knox asked if Austria-Hungary would object to the Serbian Ambassador in exile attendance at the conference. Count Tarnowski did not object, indicating he welcomed the opportunity to end this infernal war before it destroys all of Europe.

  The Russian Revolution began with bread riots in Petrograd on February 23. Over 50,000 civilians mostly women marched, chanting slogans against the rationing, the war, and the monarchy. Union strikers quickly joined the women and riots broke out. Police fired into the crowd, which inflamed the situation.

  Tsar Nicholas, involved with an offensive at Riga, accepted the Empress’ assurances that the riots were overblown. Feeling assured, he ordered the continuation of the offensive. The next day, over 250,000 chanting demonstrators marched on the government institutions, breaking into buildings and starting fires.

  On February 25, Tsar Nicholas ordered the military governor to quell the revolt. However, by then, the rebellion was out of control. Over 400,000 demonstrators demanding the end of the monarchy controlled the city. Statues of the Tsar were torn down across the city. Initially, the soldiers fired into the crowd, killing hundreds of demonstrators. Enraged, the demonstrators destroyed government buildings. Tens of thousands of demonstrators marched on the army headquarters. Women and Children led the demonstrators shouting will you kill your children, mothers, and grandmothers? The troops mutinied, joined the demonstrators, and began to slaughter their officers.

  On February 27, Tsar Nicholas returned to Alexander Palace outside Petrograd, with his capital city entirely under control of the rioters and rebellious troops. The Duma established a Provisional Government and declared itself to be the governing body of the Russian Empire. Two days later Tsar Nicholas abdicated the throne for himself and the Crown Prince Alexi. Tsar Nicholas nominated his brother Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich as his successor.

  A Duma committee interviewed the presumed future Tsar to determine his political leanings. Grand Duke Michael’s reputation presumed he would be a model Constitutional Monarch. Michael himself told the committee he would only accept the crown if the Duma elected him.

  When the Duma met to vote, cognizant of the mood of the demonstrators and rebellious troops, it voted to end the monarchy and declare Russia to be a republic. The Provisional Government placed the Tsar’s Royal Family, including Michael, his wife, and son under protective custody at the Alexander Palace.

  With the Russian Army in turmoil, the German Army began an offensive, capturing Riga, the rest of the province of Latvia, and invaded the province of Estonia. With the fall of the Estonian provincial capital Reval, the German troops were only one-hundred miles from Petrograd. A series of blizzards prevented any other offensive actions. The German troops obtained supplies by sea. The High Seas Fleet escorted the convoys from Germany to Riga and Reval.

  The Russian Ambassador to the United States, George Bakhmetev appointed by the Tsar, now did not have a portfolio. The provisional government requested he attend the peace conference as an observer only until the replacement Ambassador arrived.

  Pope Benedict XV requested to send a Papal Ambassador to the peace conference. He wanted to assist in ending what he termed The suicide of civilized Europe. President Taft welcomed the prospect of a papal envoy. The Pope appointed his Secretary of State Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli as Papal Nuncio to the conference, scheduled by President Taft for May 1 at Breton Woods, NH.

  Trying to improve their negotiating position both the French and the British launched massive attacks. The British army f
ought the 3rd battle of Ypres, and the French launched the Nivelle Offensive on German positions on the ridge north of the Aisne River. The allies attacked with 850,000 soldiers and 128 tanks. The German defenders numbered 480,000. In the early days of the battle, Brigadier General Robert Pomeroy led his brigade of 8,000 soldiers drawn from the original BEF. The British used Pomeroy’s veterans as shock troops, working with tanks to establish a breakthrough. After initial success, which penetrated two miles, the German Army counterattack, pushing the allies back to the original lines, and turned both offensives into catastrophic failures, with allied casualties over 450,000 soldiers and the destruction of eighty-five tanks. Pomeroy’s brigade covered the retreat, losing over fifty-percent of their men.

  Towards the end of the battle, the French Army mutinied, refused to advance, and 27,000 soldiers deserted. Morale plummeted as the generals told the soldiers that the offensive would end the war. Fortunately for the French, the Germans did not know of the mutiny. A counter-offensive could have broken the spirit of the French Army. Cautiously, Von Hindenberg weighed his options. The British and French armies suffered enormous losses. However, his army also suffered greatly. A counter-offensive could easily be unsuccessful, particularly if the British and French brought in fresh re-enforcements. With peace negotiations set to begin, Von Hindenberg decided to strengthen his defenses.

  Chapter 30

  Treaty of Washington

  On April 30, the delegations from the warring nations including Austria-Hungary Belgium, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and the Ottoman Empire began to arrive. Representatives from the conquered nations of Serbia and Montenegro arrived as observers. The Russian Ambassador, without instructions from the Provisional Government, remained as an observer.

  Secretary of State Knox and the Papal Nuncio, Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli, arrived a day early for a pre-conference meeting. As neutral parties, they agreed to move among the delegations to find points of agreement to bring to the table. In strict confidence, Knox outlined the Austro-Hungarian position.

  King Albert I of Belgium arrived, met with Knox and Cardinal Pacelli. The King, a devout Catholic ruled a country which suffered German occupation of ninety-percent of its territory. He outlined his peace proposal of No victors, No Vanquished. He considered that such a resolution of the war would be in the best interests of Belgium, and the future stability of Europe. If the Germans evacuated Belgium, he would take Belgium out of the war. Knox and Cardinal Pacelli assured King Albert that other un-named delegations also shared his sentiments. The Cardinal asked the King, to find a way to insert his proposal into his comments during the opening round-table. Albert readily agreed.

  Knox introduced Cardinal Pacelli to the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador Count Tarnowski. Following the obligatory small talk, Knox excused himself to meet with other delegations. The Cardinal asked Count Tarnowski’s position on the peace conference. Tarnowski detailed Emperor Franz Ferdinand’s proposals, and under delicate questioning also revealed that Austria-Hungary would agree to vacate Serbia with proper security considerations. The Cardinal, without revealing any confidential information assured Count Tarnowski that Austria-Hungary would have allies who thought much the same way.

  Knox met separately with the German, British and French ambassadors to gauge their positions. The German Ambassador Johann Heinrich von Bernstorff was positive for the development of a resolution. He reminded Knox that the Kaiser originally proposed a peace conference back in December.

  The French Ambassador Jean Jules Jusserand demanded German withdrawal from all conquered territory and reparations, solely blaming Germany for the war. He also demanded the return of Alsace-Lorraine and control of the Saar coalfields.

  Sir Cecil was more circumspect in his position. The British Empire casualties numbered over one-million-seven-hundred-thousand with over one-million-one hundred-thousand killed in action. During the war, the Empire soldiers occupied most of the former German colonies. Great Britain’s involvement in the war began with the invasion of Belgium. Before then they worked to bring the war to a close with negotiations. Sir Cecil indicated the Crown was open to a negotiated settlement.

  On May 1 at 9:00 am the conference convened. Secretary of State Knox gavelled the conference to order. As host of the conference, Knox Spoke first. He began:

  “Gentlemen, except for Belgium, the Papal Nuncio, and the United Kingdom, all the warring nations at this table are mutually complicit in starting this war. The interlocking alliances brought Europe face to face with a mile-high pyramid style bonfire, which only needed a spark to ignite. That spark was the attempted assassination of the Arch Duke Franz Ferdinand, and the murder of his wife. While the Serbian government was not responsible for the actions of Serbian nationalists, certain Serbian intelligence officers knew of the plot but did not try to stop the action.

  The Austro-Hungarian government, anxious to punish Serbia made unreasonable demands, then declared war. The interlocking alliances required the other European powers to declare war on each other without first suffering offense.” Nodding to Sir Cecil, Knox continued.

  ”Of the major powers, only Great Britain attempted to seek a negotiated settlement. However, when Germany invaded Belgium and refused to withdraw, Great Britain honored her mutual defense treaty with Belgium and declared war on Germany.

  Since that time, the blood of over 12,000,000 soldiers, sacrificed on the altar of negligent diplomacy, demands an answer. None of you believed that the war would happen. When it did, all of you predicted it would be over by Christmas. However, you did not indicate what Christmas. The time has come to an end this madness. We are here together at this table to end it now.”

  As previously arranged, the individual countries had five minutes of opening comments. Count Tarnowski stood up to speak for Austria-Hungary. He began: Austria-Hungary bears a heavy burden of this war. The prior government moved too hastily to accuse Serbia, which now lies vanquished following a brave defense. Austria-Hungary paid with the lives of over 2,000,000 brave soldiers for this miscalculation. Serbia paid with its independence.” Looking over at the Serbian representatives, Count Tarnowski continued.

  “Emperor Franz Ferdinand has instructed me to seek a peaceful resolution to this war, and when accomplished, the Emperor empowered me to negotiate directly with the Serbian representatives to resolve our conflict. If this damnable war has taught us anything, it is we must learn to live in peace.” With that closing statement, he sat down to loud applause.

  King Albert stood next. He began by stating: “I thank Count Tarnowski for his honesty and willingness to find a peaceful solution. Belgium is also willing to push for peace. My nation has been devastated, with over ninety-percent of our territory conquered and occupied by the German Army. This occupation and the destruction brought on by war destroyed the fabric of Belgium’s society. However, if the German government orders its army to begin a total withdrawal forthwith, and guarantees our borders, Belgium will withdraw from the war.” Following a stunned silence, the applause drowned out the French denunciations.

  The Ambassador from Bulgaria Stephan Panaretov spoke next. Bulgaria entered the war in 1915 to recover provinces lost to Serbia in 1913 during the 2nd Balkan War. The Bulgarian Army also assisted in the defeat of Romania in 1916; recovering the province of Dobruja. Panaretov indicated Bulgaria would also cease hostilities, and begin negotiations.

  The French Ambassador Jean Jules Jusserand stood up to speak. He stared at King Albert, who stared back. Following an uncomfortable moment, Jusserand looked at Germany’s Ambassador von Bernstorff who steepled his fingers as he stared back. Jusserand then looked at Sir Cecil, who looked back with raised eyebrows. Knox spoke “Mr. Ambassador,” which brought Jusserand back to the moment. He realized that his bellicose comments from the day before would not work. The mood in the room was leaning to end the war. He began:

  “France is suffering the German occupation and devastation of the northern portion of our cou
ntry. Almost two-million brave French soldiers died on those battlefields, and a million of our citizens are displaced. Certainly, we must bring this war to an end, but that end must be just. The blood of our fallen requires justice for their lives. France is willing to negotiate a peaceful end to this calamity.”

  The German Ambassador Johann Heinrich von Bernstorff spoke next. He stated: “We could endlessly discuss who declared war on whom first, or who fired the first shot. We are not here to discuss that. We are here to end this war. I have been empowered by the Kaiser to offer a cease-fire to begin at midnight May 4, 1917. That will give all present time to notify their field commanders. I am here to declare that the German Army will not fire another shot unless attacked. Millions of brave soldiers on all sides are dead. No more should die while we talk. Germany will immediately begin negotiations to implement measures to end this war. In summary, the German Army will stand down, and we urge all other parties to do the same.”

  Reporters, seated in the gallery above the conference room bolted from the room to be the first to telephone the news of the German offer for an immediate cease-fire. The delegates were all on their feet applauding. Knox banged the gavel to restore order. Slowly the noise abated.