A Peace to End all Peace

by David Fromkin

  13 Trumpener, Ottoman Empire, p. 31.

  14 Ibid., p. 33.

  15 Ibid.

  16 Ibid.

  17 Ibid., p. 32.

  18 Viscount Grey of Falloden, Twenty-Five Years, 1892–1916 (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1925), Vol. 2, p. 164.

  19 Joseph Heller, British Policy Towards the Ottoman Empire: 1908–1914 (London: Frank Cass, 1983).

  20 Trumpener, Ottoman Empire, p. 48.

  21 Harry N. Howard, Turkey, the Straits and U.S. Policy (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974), p. 27, n. 2.

  22 Trumpener, Ottoman Empire, p. 58.

  23 Gilbert, Churchill: The Challenge of War, p. 216.

  24 Shaw and Shaw, Ottoman Empire, p. 312.

  25 Asquith, Letters, p. 309.

  26 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, Vol. 4: 1916–1922, The Stricken World (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975), pp. 752–3.

  27 Asquith, Letters, pp. 165–6.

  28 Ibid., p. 186.

  29 Gilbert, The Challenge of War, p. 210.

  30 Grey, Twenty-Five Years, p. 167.

  31 Asquith, Letters, p. 402.

  32 Christopher Sykes, Two Studies in Virtue (London: Collins, 1953), p. 205.

  CHAPTER 8

  1 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, Vol. 3: 1914–1916, The Challenge of War (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1971), p. 12.

  2 George H. Cassar, Kitchener: Architect of Victory (London: William Kimber, 1977), p. 172.

  3 H. H. Asquith, Letters to Venetia Stanley, ed. by Michael and Eleanor Brock (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 157.

  4 Lord Riddell’s War Diary 1914–1918 (London: Ivor Nicholson & Watson, 1933), p. 48; Cassar, Kitchener, p. 193.

  5 Violet Bonham Carter, Winston Churchill as I Knew Him (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode and Collins, 1965), p. 316.

  6 Lord Beaverbrook, Politicians and the War 1914–1916 (London: Oldbourne Book Co., 1960), p. 172.

  7 Duff Cooper, Old Men Forget (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1954), p. 54.

  8 G. W. Steevens, With Kitchener to Khartum (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1900), p. 46.

  9 Ibid., p. 48.

  10 Ibid., p. 45.

  11 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 12th edn, s.v. “Kitchener.”

  12 Cassar, Kitchener, p. 196.

  13 Elie Kedourie, In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth: The McMahon-Husayn Correspondence and its Interpreters 1914–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 12–13; L. Hirszowicz, “The Sultan and the Khedive, 1892–1908,” Middle Eastern Studies (October 1972); Jukka Nevakivi, “Lord Kitchener and the Partition of the Ottoman Empire, 1915–1916,” in K. C. Bourne and D. C. Watt (eds), Studies in International History (London: Longman, 1967), p. 318.

  14 Lord Edward Cecil, The Leisure of an Egyptian Official (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1921), p. 187.

  15 The Memoirs of Sir Ronald Storrs (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1937), p. 206.

  16 Kedourie, Anglo-Arab Labyrinth, p. 29.

  17 Sir Mark Sykes, The Caliphs’ Last Heritage: A Short History of the Turkish Empire (London: Macmillan, 1915).

  18 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th edn, s.v. “Turkey” Lord Eversley, The Turkish Empire, from 1288 to 1914 (New York: Howard Fertig, 1969), p. 6.

  19 Arab Bulletin, no. 47, 11 April 1917.

  20 H. V. F. Winstone, The Illicit Adventure (London: Jonathan Cape, 1982), pp. 107–9 and 220–1.

  CHAPTER 9

  1 Lord Riddell’s War Diary 1914–1918 (London: Ivor Nicholson & Watson, 1933), p. 75.

  2 G. W. Steevens, With Kitchener to Khartum (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1900), pp. 64–5.

  3 University of Durham. Sudan Archive. Gilbert Clayton Papers. 469/8.

  4 Ibid.

  5 War Memoirs of David Lloyd George, Vol. 3: 1916–1917 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1934), pp. 304–5.

  6 Kew. Public Record Office. Kitchener Papers. 30/57 45. Document 0045.

  7 University of Durham. Sudan Archive. Gilbert Clayton Papers. 470/4.

  8 Kew. Public Record Office. Kitchener Papers. 30/57 45. Document 0071.

  9 Ibid. Document 0073.

  10 University of Durham. Sudan Archive. Clayton Key Papers. G//S 513. File 1.

  11 Kew. Public Record Office. Kitchener Papers. 30/57 47. Document QQ16.

  12 Ibid. Document QQ15.

  13 Christopher M. Andrew and A. S. Kanya-Forstner, The Climax of French Imperial Expansion: 1914–1924 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981), p. 68.

  14 Ibid., p. 69.

  15 Ibid., p. 40.

  16 Ibid., pp. 69–70.

  CHAPTER 10

  1 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 12th edn, s.v. “World War.”

  2 John Buchan, Greenmantle (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1916), p. 17.

  3 C. Ernest Dawn, From Ottomanism to Arabism: Essays on the Origins of Arab Nationalism (Urbana, Chicago, and London: University of Illinois Press, 1973), pp. 54–68.

  4 The account in the text follows that in Elie Kedourie, In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth: The McMahon-Husayn Correspondence and its Interpreters 1914–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 4–11.

  5 Majid Khadduri, “Aziz ’Ali Al-Misri and the Arab Nationalist Movement,” in Albert Hourani (ed.), Middle Eastern Affairs: Number Four, St Antony’s Papers, no. 17 (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), pp. 140–3.

  6 H. V. F. Winstone, The Illicit Adventure (London: Jonathan Cape, 1982), p. 380.

  7 Kedourie, Anglo-Arab Labyrinth, pp. 13–14.

  8 Ibid., p. 25.

  9 Ibid., p. 17.

  10 Zeine N. Zeine, The Emergence of Arab Nationalism with a Background Study of Arab-Turkish Relations in the Near East (Beirut: Khayats, 1966).

  11 Dawn, Ottomanism, p. 152.

  12 Albert Hourani, The Emergence of the Modern Middle East (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 1981), pp. 193–215; Dawn, Ottomanism; Zeine N. Zeine, Arab Nationalism, pp. 39–59.

  13 George Antonius, The Arab Awakening: The Story of the Arab National Movement (New York: Capricorn Books, 1965), p. 133; Kedourie, Anglo-Arab Labyrinth, p. 19.

  14 University of Durham. Sudan Archive. Gilbert Clayton Papers. 469/8.

  15 Kedourie, Anglo-Arab Labyrinth, p. 22.

  16 Ibid., pp. 17–18.

  17 Kew. Public Record Office. Kitchener Papers. 30/57 47. Document QQ38.

  CHAPTER 11

  1 Elie Kedourie, In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth: The McMahon-Husayn Correspondence and its Interpreters 1914–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), p. 30.

  2 Briton Cooper Busch, Britain, India, and the Arabs, 1914–1921 (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1971), p. 62.

  3 Kedourie, Anglo-Arab Labyrinth, p. 30.

  4 Busch, Britain, India, and the Arabs, p. 62.

  5 Kedourie, Anglo-Arab Labyrinth, p. 120.

  6 Ibid., p. 30.

  7 H. V. F. Winstone, Captain Shakespear (London: Jonathan Cape, 1976).

  8 Busch, Britain, India, and the Arabs, p. 60.

  9 Ibid., p. 11.

  10 Kedourie, Anglo-Arab Labyrinth, p. 52.

  11 Ibid., pp. 47–51.

  12 Ulrich Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman Empire: 1914–1918 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), p. 117.

  13 Fritz Fischer, Germany’s Aims in the First World War (New York: W. W. Norton, 1967), p. 126.

  14 Trumpener, Ottoman Empire, p. 118.

  15 Kedourie, Anglo-Arab Labyrinth, p. 76.

  16 C. J. Lowe and M. L. Dockrill, The Mirage of Power, Vol. 3: The Documents, British Foreign Policy 1902–1922 (London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972), p. 538.

  17 University of Durham. Sudan Archive. Clayton Key Papers. G//S 513. File 1.

  18 Kew. Public Record Office. Kitchener Papers. 30/57 45. Document 0074.

  CHAPTER 12

  1 C. Ernest Dawn, From Ottomanism to Arabism: Essays on the Origins of Arab Nationalism (Urbana, Chicago, and London: University of Illinois P
ress, 1973), p. 14, nn. 42 and 43.

  2 Kew. Public Record Office. Kitchener Papers. 30/57 47.

  3 Ibid. Document QQ15.

  CHAPTER 13

  1 The text material on the Caucasus campaign follows the first-hand account supplied by Major Franz Carl Endres in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 12th edn, s.v. “Turkish Campaigns.”

  2 90,000 effectives, according to Endres, ibid. The current Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th edn. s.v. “World Wars,” uses the figure 180,000.

  3 Ibid.

  4 Ahmed Emin, Turkey in the World War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1930), p. 88.

  5 Frank G. Weber, Eagles on the Crescent: Germany, Austria, and the Diplomacy of the Turkish Alliance 1914–1918 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1970), p. 98; C. R. M. F. Cruttwell, A History of the Great War, 2nd edn (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1936), p. 351.

  6 Margaret FitzHerbert, The Man Who Was Greenmantle: A Biography of Aubrey Herbert (London: John Murray, 1983), p. 147.

  7 H. H. Asquith, Letters to Venetia Stanley, ed. by Michael and Eleanor Brock (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 414.

  8 The statistics that follow are taken from Charles Issawi, The Economic History of Turkey: 1800–1914 (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1980), pp. 366 et seq.

  9 Emin, Turkey, p. 92.

  CHAPTER 14

  1 Lord Beaverbrook, Men and Power 1917–1918 (London: Hutchinson, 1956), p. xvii.

  2 Walter Hines Page, quoted in Kenneth O. Morgan, Lloyd George (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1974), p. 13.

  3 A. J. P. Taylor, English History 1914–1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), p. 74.

  4 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, Vol. 3: 1914–1916, The Challenge of War (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1971), p. 230.

  5 Zara C. Steiner, Britain and the Origins of the First World War (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1977).

  6 The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell (London: Unwin Paperbacks, 1978), p. 239.

  7 H. H. Asquith, Letters to Venetia Stanley, ed. by Michael and Eleanor Brock (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 266.

  8 Gilbert, Churchill: The Challenge of War, p. 226; John Grigg, Lloyd George: From Peace to War 1912–1916 (London: Methuen, 1985), p. 194.

  9 Lord Beaverbrook, Politicians and the War 1914–1916 (London: Oldbourne, 1960), p. 175.

  10 Gilbert, Churchill: The Challenge of War, pp. 328–9.

  CHAPTER 15

  1 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, Vol. 3: 1914–1916, The Challenge of War (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1971), p. 234.

  2 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume, Vol. 3, Part 1: July 1914–April 1915 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), p. 380.

  3 H. H. Asquith, Letters to Venetia Stanley, ed. by Michael and Eleanor Brock (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 374.

  4 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, p. 500.

  5 Asquith, Letters, p. 429.

  6 Gilbert, Churchill: The Challenge of War, p. 287.

  7 Ibid., pp. 296–7.

  8 Ibid., p. 288.

  9 Violet Bonham Carter, Winston Churchill as I Knew Him (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode and Collins, 1965), pp. 359–60.

  10 Ibid., p. 359.

  11 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, pp. 558–9.

  12 Alan Moorehead, Gallipoli (New York: Ballentine Books, 1956), p. 59.

  13 Ulrich Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman Empire 1914–1918 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), p. 142.

  14 Ibid., p. 146.

  15 L. S. Stavrianos, The Balkans since 1453 (New York: Rinehart, 1958), p. 560.

  16 Bonham Carter, Churchill, p. 368.

  17 Ibid., p. 369.

  18 Ibid., p. 361.

  19 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, p. 625.

  20 Bonham Carter, Churchill, p. 368.

  21 Gilbert, Churchill: The Challenge of War, p. 315.

  22 Ibid., p. 326.

  23 Bonham Carter, Churchill, pp. 365–6.

  CHAPTER 16

  1 Christopher M. Andrew and A. S. Kanya-Forstner, The Climax of French Imperial Expansion: 1914–1924 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981), p. 73.

  2 Viscount Grey of Falloden, Twenty-Five Years, 1892–1916 (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1925), Vol. 2, pp. 180–1.

  3 H. H. Asquith, Letters to Venetia Stanley, ed. by Michael and Eleanor Brock (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 300.

  4 Ibid., p. 463.

  5 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, Vol. 3: 1914–1916, The Challenge of War (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1971), p. 320.

  6 Ibid.

  7 Asquith, Letters, p. 183, n. 5.

  8 Gilbert, Churchill: The Challenge of War, p. 320.

  9 Elie Kedourie, In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth: The McMahon-Husayn Correspondence and its Interpreters 1914–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 22–3.

  10 David Lloyd George, Memoirs of the Peace Conference (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1939), Vol. 2, p. 669.

  11 Gilbert, Churchill: The Challenge of War, p. 349.

  12 Briton Cooper Busch, Britain, India, and the Arabs, 1914–1921 (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1971), pp. 40–2.

  13 Asquith, Letters, p. 510.

  14 Ibid., p. 469.

  15 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume, Vol. 3, Part 1: July 1914–April 1915 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), p. 716.

  16 Kew. Public Record Office. Kitchener Papers. 30/57 45. Document 0073.

  17 Ibid. 30/57. Document QQ18.

  18 Kedourie, Anglo-Arab Labyrinth, p. 33.

  19 Ibid., pp. 49–50.

  20 Ibid., p. 34.

  21 H. V. F. Winstone, Gertrude Bell (London: Jonathan Cape, 1978), p. 165.

  22 Marian Kent, “Asiatic Turkey, 1914–1916,” in F. H. Hinsley (ed.), British Foreign Policy under Sir Edward Grey (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), p. 445.

  23 Kedourie, Anglo-Arab Labyrinth, p. 43.

  24 Ibid., p. 41.

  25 C. J. Lowe and M. L. Dockrill, The Mirage of Power, Vol. 3: The Documents, British Foreign Policy 1902–1922 (London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972), pp. 524–5.

  CHAPTER 17

  1 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume, Vol. 3, Part 1: July 1914–April 1915 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), pp. 52–3.

  2 Roger Adelson, Mark Sykes: Portrait of an Amateur (London: Jonathan Cape, 1975), p. 180.

  3 Ibid., p. 182.

  4 Margaret FitzHerbert, The Man Who Was Greenmantle: A Biography of Aubrey Herbert (London: John Murray, 1983), pp. 147–9.

  CHAPTER 18

  1 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, Vol. 3: 1914–1916, The Challenge of War (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1971), p. 343.

  2 Ibid.

  3 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume, Vol. 3, Part 1: July 1914–April 1915 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), p. 703.

  4 Gilbert, Churchill: The Challenge of War, p. 358.

  5 Stephen Roskill, Hankey: Man of Secrets, Vol. 1: 1877–1918 (London: Collins, 1970), p. 159.

  6 Gilbert, Churchill: The Challenge of War, p. 359.

  7 Ibid., p. 371.

  8 H. H. Asquith, Letters to Venetia Stanley, ed. by Michael and Eleanor Brock (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 488.

  9 Gilbert, Churchill: The Challenge of War, p. 375.

  10 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, p. 731.

  CHAPTER 19

  1 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume, Vol. 3, Part 1, July 1914–April 1915 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), p. 582.

  2 Sir Ian Hamilton, Gallipoli Diary, Vol. 1 (London: Edward Arnold, 1920), p. 5.

  3 Ibid., p. 25.

  4 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, Vol. 3: 1914–1916, The Challenge of War (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1971), p. 294.

  5 John Grigg, Lloyd George: From Peace to War 1912
–1916 (London: Methuen, 1985), p. 211.

  6 Compton Mackenzie, My Life and Times, Octave Five, 1915–1923 (London: Chatto & Windus, 1966), p. 269

  CHAPTER 20

  1 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, Vol. 3: 1914–1916, The Challenge of War (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1971), p. 450.

  2 Margaret FitzHerbert, The Man Who Was Greenmantle: A Biography of Aubrey Herbert (London: John Murray, 1983), p. 151.

  3 Ibid., p. 155.

  4 Lord Riddell’s War Diary 1914–1918 (London: Ivor Nicholson & Watson, 1933), p. 94.

  5 Ibid., p. 109.

  6 Gilbert, Churchill: The Challenge of War, p. 476.

  7 Riddell, Diary, p. 89.

  8 Gilbert, Churchill: The Challenge of War, p. 440.

  CHAPTER 21

  1 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, Vol. 3: 1914–1916, The Challenge of War (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1971), p. 529.

  2 H. Montgomery Hyde, Carson (London: William Heinemann, 1953), p. 393.

  3 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume, Vol. 3, Part 2: May 1915–December 1916 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), p. 1158.

  4 Gilbert, Churchill: The Challenge of War, p. 549.

  5 John Presland (pseudonym for Gladys Skelton), Deedes Bey: A Study of Sir Wyndham Deedes 1883–1923 (London: Macmillan, 1942), p. 226.

  6 Ibid., p. 231.

  CHAPTER 22

  1 Roger Adelson, Mark Sykes: Portrait of an Amateur (London: Jonathan Cape, 1975), p. 187.

  2 Briton Cooper Busch, Britain, India, and the Arabs, 1914–1921 (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1971), p. 69.

  3 Adelson, Sykes, p. 192.

  4 C. J. Lowe and M. L. Dockrill, The Mirage of Power, Vol. 2: British Foreign Policy 1914–1922 (London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972), p. 209.

  5 H. V. F. Winstone, Gertrude Bell (London: Jonathan Cape, 1978), p. 162.

  CHAPTER 23

  1 Roger Adelson, Mark Sykes: Portrait of an Amateur (London: Jonathan Cape, 1975), p. 187.

  2 Ibid., p. 189.

  3 Secret Despatches from Arabia by T. E. Lawrence (The Golden Cockerel Press), p. 69.

  4 C. Ernest Dawn, From Ottomanism to Arabism: Essays on the Origins of Arab Nationalism (Urbana, Chicago and London: University of Illinois Press, 1973), p. 30.

  5 Elie Kedourie, In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth: The McMahon-Husayn Correspondence and its Interpreters 1914–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), p. 75.