A Peace to End all Peace

by David Fromkin

  6 Ibid., p. 77.

  7 Ibid., p. 78.

  8 Elie Kedourie, The Chatham House Version and Other Middle Eastern Studies (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1970), p. 14.

  9 Kew. Public Record Office. Kitchener Papers. 30/57 48. Document RR 26.

  10 London. House of Lords Record Office. Beaverbrook Collection. Lloyd George Papers. F-205–3. Document 17.

  11 Karl Baedeker, Palestine and Syria: With Routes through Mesopotamia and Babylon and the Island of Cyprus: Handbook for Travellers, 5th edn, remodelled and augmented (Leipzig: Karl Baedeker, 1912), p. 157.

  12 Kew. Public Record Office. Kitchener Papers. 30/57 47. Document QQ46.

  13 These and similar quotations are assembled in Elie Kedourie, England and the Middle East: The Destruction of the Ottoman Empire, 1914–1921 (Hassocks, Sussex: Harvester Press, 1978), p. 69.

  14 Ibid.

  15 Adelson, Sykes, p. 189.

  16 Kedourie, Chatham House, p. 15.

  17 Sherif Hussein’s second note to Sir Henry McMahon, 9 September 1915.

  18 John Presland (pseudonym for Gladys Skelton), Deedes Bey: A Study of Sir Wyndham Deedes 1883–1923 (London: Macmillan, 1942), pp. 244–5.

  19 University of Durham. Sudan Archive. Gilbert Clayton Papers. 470/2.

  20 Ronald Sanders, The High Walls of Jerusalem: A History of the Balfour Declaration and the Birth of the British Mandate for Palestine (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1983), p. 253.

  21 Dawn, Ottomanism, p. 115.

  22 Kedourie, Anglo-Arab Labyrinth, p. 108.

  23 Presland, Deedes Bey, p. 247.

  24 Kedourie, Anglo-Arab Labyrinth, pp. 119–20.

  25 Ibid., p. 121.

  26 Kew. Public Record Office. Kitchener Papers. 30/57 48. Document RR8.

  CHAPTER 24

  1 Roger Adelson, Mark Sykes: Portrait of an Amateur (London: Jonathan Cape, 1975), pp. 196–7.

  2 Ibid., p. 199.

  3 Jukka Nevakivi, “Lord Kitchener and the Partition of the Ottoman Empire, 1915–1916,” in K. Bourne and D. C. Watt (eds), Studies in International History (London: Longman, 1967), p. 328; Philip Magnus, Kitchener: Portrait of an Imperialist (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968), pp. 374–5.

  4 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Mark Sykes Papers. DS 42.1.

  5 Christopher M. Andrew and A. S. Kanya-Forstner, The Climax of French Imperial Expansion: 1914–1924 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981), p. 66.

  6 Ibid., p. 75.

  7 Ibid., pp. 75–7; St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Mark Sykes Papers. DR 588.25. Extrait de la “Revue Hebdomadaire.” Etienne Flandin, “Nos droits en Syrie et en Palestine.”

  8 Andrew and Kanya-Forstner, French Imperial Expansion, p. 89.

  9 Marian Kent, Oil and Empire: British Policy and Mesopotamian Oil, 1900–1920 (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan Press for the London School of Economics, 1976), p. 122.

  10 Andrew and Kanya-Forstner, French Imperial Expansion, p. 93.

  11 Ibid., p. 96.

  12 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Mark Sykes Papers. DS 42.1.

  13 Adelson, Sykes, p. 200.

  14 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Hubert Young Papers. Notes for Lecture at Military Staff College.

  15 Margaret FitzHerbert, The Man Who Was Greenmantle: A Biography of Aubrey Herbert (London: John Murray, 1983), p. 173.

  16 Adelson, Sykes, pp. 202 et seq.

  17 Andrew and Kanya-Forstner, French Imperial Expansion, p. 101.

  18 C. J. Lowe and M. L. Dockrill, The Mirage of Power, Vol. 2: British Foreign Policy 1914–1922 (London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972), pp. 228–9.

  19 Ibid.; Adelson, Sykes, pp. 202, et seq.

  20 Adelson, Sykes, pp. 202 et seq.

  21 Ronald Sanders, The High Walls of Jerusalem: A History of the Balfour Declaration and the Birth of the British Mandate for Palestine (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1983), p. 334.

  22 Adelson, Sykes, p. 226.

  23 Kent, Oil and Empire, p. 123.

  24 Ibid.

  CHAPTER 25

  1 The account in the text follows Russell Braddon, The Siege (New York: Viking Press, 1969), and standard reference works. For Aubrey Herbert’s role, see Margaret FitzHerbert, The Man Who Was Greenmantle: A Biography of Aubrey Herbert (London: John Murray, 1983), pp. 169 et seq.

  CHAPTER 26

  1 Frank G. Weber, Eagles on the Crescent: Germany, Austria, and the Diplomacy of the Turkish Alliance 1914–1918 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1970), pp. 100–6.

  2 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Mark Sykes Papers. DR 588.25.

  3 Sukru Elekdag, ambassador of the Turkish Republic, letter to the editor, New York Times, 11 May 1983, p. 22.

  4 Stanford J. Shaw and Ezel Kural Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol. 2: Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808–1975 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), pp. 314 et seq.

  5 Ulrich Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman Empire 1914–1918 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), p. 203.

  6 Ibid., p. 208.

  7 Ibid., pp. 208–9.

  8 Ibid., pp. 209–10.

  9 Ibid., p. 212.

  10 Ibid., pp. 213–16.

  11 Ibid., p. 213.

  12 Ibid., p. 213.

  13 Ibid., p. 225.

  14 Sukru Elekdag, “Armenians vs. Turks: The View from Istanbul,” Wall Street Journal, 21 September 1983, p. 33.

  15 Firuz Kazemzadeh, The Struggle for Transcaucasia (1917–1921) (New York: Philosophical Library, and Oxford: George Ronald, 1951), pp. 27–30.

  CHAPTER 27

  1 H. Montgomery Hyde, Carson (London: William Heinemann, 1953), p. 390.

  2 Trevor Royle, The Kitchener Enigma (London: Michael Joseph, 1985), pp. 355 et seq.

  3 Ibid., p. 373.

  4 “Exposed: The Blunder that Killed Lord Kitchener,” The Sunday Times, 22 September 1985, p. 13. See also George H. Cassar, Kitchener: Architect of Victory (London: William Kimber, 1977), p. 478. But another survivor claimed that Kitchener was not wearing an overcoat; see Philip Warner, Kitchener: The Man Behind the Legend (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1985), p. 199.

  CHAPTER 28

  1 John Presland (pseudonym for Gladys Skelton), Deedes Bey: A Study of Sir Wyndham Deedes 1883–1923 (London: Macmillan, 1942), p. 263.

  2 C. Ernest Dawn, From Ottomanism to Arabism: Essays on the Origins of Arab Nationalism (Urbana, Chicago and London: University of Illinois Press, 1973), p. 33.

  3 Kew. Public Record Office. Kitchener Papers. Foreign Office 882. Vol. 19. AB/16/5.

  4 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Mark Sykes Papers. DR 588 (DS 244.4).

  5 University of Durham. Sudan Archive. Gilbert Clayton Papers. 470/4.

  6 Majid Khadduri, “Aziz ’Ali Al-Misri and the Arab Nationalist Movement,” in Albert Hourani (ed.), Middle Eastern Affairs: Number Four, St Antony’s Papers, no. 17 (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), pp. 140–63, and pp. 154–5.

  7 George Antonius, The Arab Awakening: The Story of the Arab National Movement (New York: Capricorn Books, 1965), p. 153.

  8 Dawn, Ottomanism, p. 47.

  9 The Memoirs of Sir Ronald Storrs (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1937), p. 167.

  10 Ibid., p. 168.

  11 Ibid., p. 167.

  12 Elie Kedourie, In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth: The McMahon-Husayn Correspondence and its Interpreters 1914–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), p. 201.

  13 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Mark Sykes Papers. DR 588 (DS 244.4).

  14 Ibid.

  15 Bernard Lewis, The Middle East and the West (New York and London: Harper Torchbooks), p. 9.

  16 The account of Brémond’s activities is based on General Ed. Brémond, Le Hedjaz dans la guerre mondiale (Paris: Payot, 1931).

  17 Major Sir Hubert Young, The Independent Arab (L
ondon: John Murray, 1933).

  18 Desmond Stewart, T. E. Lawrence (New York and London: Harper & Row, 1977), p. 148.

  19 The account of Lawrence’s activities that follows is based principally on Stewart, Lawrence; Young, The Independent Arab; and Lawrence’s writings.

  20 The Diaries of Parker Pasha, ed. by H. V. F. Winstone (London and New York: Quartet Books, 1983), p. 158.

  21 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. T. E. Lawrence Papers. DS 244.4.

  22 London. Imperial War Museum. T. E. Lawrence Papers. 69/48/2.

  CHAPTER 29

  1 Robert Blake, The Unknown Prime Minister: The Life and Times of Andrew Bonar Law 1858–1918 (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1955), p. 290.

  2 Milner’s responsibility for the war is emphasized in Thomas Pakenham, The Boer War (New York: Random House, 1979).

  3 Norman Stone, Europe Transformed 1878–1919 (London: Fontana Paperbacks, 1983), p. 366.

  4 A. J. P. Taylor, The First World War: An Illustrated History (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1963), p. 103.

  5 Kenneth O. Morgan, Lloyd George (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1974), p. 92.

  6 Blake, The Unknown Prime Minister, p. 294.

  7 Ibid., p. 297.

  8 Lord Riddell’s War Diary 1914–1918 (London: Ivor Nicholson & Watson, 1933), p. 334.

  9 A. J. P. Taylor, English History 1914–1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), p. 73.

  10 Stephen Roskill, Hankey: Man of Secrets, Vol. 1: 1877–1918 (London: Collins, 1970), p. 339.

  11 Terence H. O’Brien, Milner (London: Constable, 1979), p. 79.

  12 John Grigg, Lloyd George: From Peace to War 1912–1916 (London: Methuen, 1985), p. 489.

  13 Roskill, Hankey, pp. 422–3.

  14 Ibid., p. 436.

  15 Ibid., p. 458.

  16 Theodore Zeldin, France 1848–1945, Vol. 1: Ambition, Love and Politics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), pp. 698 et seq.

  17 David Robin Watson, Georges Clemenceau: A Political Biography (London: Eyre Methuen, 1974), p. 269.

  18 Ibid., p. 90.

  19 Winston S. Churchill, Great Contemporaries (London: Fontana, 1959), pp. 248–9.

  20 Watson, Clemenceau, p. 127.

  21 Zeldin, France, p. 703.

  22 Watson, Clemenceau, p. 28.

  23 Roskill, Hankey, p. 466.

  CHAPTER 30

  1 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 12th edn, s.v. “Turkish Campaigns (I),” an article written by Major Franz Carl Endres.

  2 Quoted in Y. T. Kurat, “How Turkey Drifted into World War I,” in K. C. Bourne and D. C. Watt (eds), Studies in International History (London: Longman, 1967), pp. 291–315 at p. 294.

  3 Harvey A. De Weerd, “Churchill, Lloyd George, Clemenceau: The Emergence of the Civilian,” in Edward Meade Earle (ed.), Makers of Modern Strategy: Military Thought from Machiavelli to Hitler (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1943), pp. 287–305 at pp. 290–1; James T. Shotwell, The Great Decision (New York: Macmillan, 1944), pp. 8–9.

  4 A. J. P. Taylor, English History 1914–1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), p. 34.

  5 Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Russian Revolution (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 10; Alec Nove, An Economic History of the U. S. S. R. (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1982), pp. 20–5; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th edn, s.v. “Russia.”

  6 Hugh Seton-Watson, The Russian Empire 1801–1917 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967), pp. 704–5.

  7 Norman Stone, The Eastern Front 1914–1917 (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1975), p. 288; Michael Kettle, The Allies and the Russian Collapse March 1917–March 1918 (London: André Deutsch, 1981), p. 98.

  8 Gordon A. Craig, Germany 1866–1945 (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), p. 375.

  9 Ulrich Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman Empire 1914–1918 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), p. 153.

  10 Bertram D. Wolfe, Three Who Made a Revolution: A Biographical History, 4th rev. edn (New York: Dell, Delta Books, 1964), pp. 620 et seq.; Edmund Wilson, To the Finland Station: A Study in the Writing and Acting of History (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1953), pp. 445 et seq.

  11 The account that follows is based on Z. A. B. Zeman and W. B. Scharlau, The Merchant of Revolution: The Life of Alexander Israel Helphand (Parvus) 1867–1924 (London: Oxford University Press, 1965); and on the documents from the German archives reproduced in Z. A. B. Zeman (ed.), Germany and the Revolution in Russia 1915–1918 (London: Oxford University Press, 1958).

  12 Zeman and Scharlau, The Merchant of Revolution, p. 136.

  13 Zeman (ed.), Germany, p. 1.

  14 Zeman and Scharlau, The Merchant of Revolution, p. 155.

  15 Ibid., p. 154.

  16 Ibid., pp. 156–7.

  17 Ibid., p. 158.

  18 Leonard Schapiro, The Russian Revolutions of 1917: The Origins of Modern Communism (New York: Basic Books, 1984), p. 95.

  19 Kettle, The Russian Collapse, pp. 13–35.

  20 Norman Stone, Europe Transformed 1878–1919 (London: Fontana, 1983), p. 371.

  21 Edward Hallett Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution 1917–1923, Vol. 1 (New York: Macmillan, 1951), p. 70.

  22 Zeman (ed.), Germany, pp. 35–6.

  23 Lord Riddell’s War Diary 1914–1918 (London: Ivor Nicholson & Watson, 1933), p. 82.

  24 Taylor, English History, pp. 94–5.

  CHAPTER 31

  1 Arthur S. Link, Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace, 1916–1917 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965), pp. 179–80.

  2 Ibid., pp. 201–3.

  3 Charles Seymour, The Intimate Papers of Colonel House, Vol. 3 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1928), p. 51.

  4 John Maynard Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Howe, 1920), p. 42.

  5 War Memoirs of David Lloyd George, Vol. 3: 1916–1917 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1934), p. 64.

  6 The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, ed. by Arthur S. Link et al., Vol. 41: January 24–April 6, 1917 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), p. 438.

  7 Ibid., p. 462.

  8 Ibid., p. 520.

  9 Ibid., p. 525.

  10 Ibid.

  11 Seymour, Papers of Colonel House, Vol. 3, p. 45.

  12 Ronald Steel, Walter Lippmann, and the American Century (Boston and Toronto: Little Brown and Company, 1980), p. 133.

  13 Seymour, Papers of Colonel House, Vol. 3, p. 323.

  14 Ibid.

  15 Seymour, Papers of Colonel House, Vol. 2, p. 415.

  16 Steel, Lippmann, p. 136.

  17 Lawrence Evans, United States Policy and the Partition of Turkey, 1914–1924 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965), p. 39.

  18 Ibid., pp. 40–2.

  19 Lawrence E. Gelfand, The Inquiry: American Preparation for Peace, 1917–1919 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1963), p. 47.

  20 Ibid., p. 273.

  21 Ibid., pp. 60–2.

  22 Ibid., pp. 240–50.

  23 Ibid., pp. 250–52.

  24 Seymour, Papers of Colonel House, Vol. 3, p. 39.

  25 Wilson, Papers, Vol. 41, pp. 537–8.

  26 Gelfand, The Inquiry, p. 173.

  CHAPTER 32

  1 Roger Adelson, Mark Sykes: Portrait of an Amateur (London: Jonathan Cape, 1975), p. 222.

  2 Lord Beaverbrook, Men and Power 1917–1918 (London: Hutchinson, 1956), p. 47.

  3 Ibid., p. 48.

  4 War Memoirs of David Lloyd George, Vol. 4: 1917 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1934), p. 68.

  5 Ibid., p. 66.

  6 Ibid., p. 432.

  7 Ibid., pp. 573–4.

  8 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume, Vol. 4, Part 1: January 1917–June 1919 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), p. 59.

  9 Beaverbrook, Men and Power, p. 141.

  10 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, Vol. 4: 1916–1922, The Stricken World (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975), p. 18.

  11 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, p. 99.

&
nbsp; 12 Gilbert, Churchill: Vol. 4, p. 30.

  13 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, p. 101.

  14 Ibid., p. 108.

  15 London. House of Lords Record Office. Beaverbrook Collection. Lloyd George Papers. F—6—1. Documents 1 through 16 (b).

  16 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, p. 60.

  17 Elie Kedourie, In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth: The McMahon-Husayn Correspondence and its Interpreters 1914–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), p. 159.

  18 David Lloyd George, Memoirs of the Peace Conference (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1939), Vol. 2, p. 721.

  19 Ibid., p. 722.

  20 Barbara W. Tuchman, Bible and Sword: England and Palestine from the Bronze Age to Balfour (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1956), p. 121.

  21 Ronald Sanders, The High Walls of Jerusalem: A History of the Balfour Declaration and the Birth of the British Mandate for Palestine (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1983), p. 5.

  22 Sir Charles Webster, The Foreign Policy of Palmerston, 1830–1841: Britain, the Liberal Movement and the Eastern Question (New York: Humanities Press, 1969), Vol. 2, p. 761. See also Leonard Stein, The Balfour Declaration (London: Valentine Mitchell, 1961), pp. 5–9, and Tuchman, Bible and Sword, pp. 80–224.

  23 H. H. Asquith, Letters to Venetia Stanley, ed. by Michael and Eleanor Brock (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 406.

  24 Ibid., p. 477.

  25 Ibid.

  26 Ibid.

  27 Ibid., pp. 477–8.

  28 Isaiah Friedman, The Question of Palestine, 1914–1918, British-Jewish-Arab Relations (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1973), p. 129.

  29 Alex Bein, Theodore Herzl: A Biography, trans. by Maurice Samuel (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1941), pp. 411 et seq.

  30 London. House of Lords Record Office. Beaverbrook Collection. Lloyd George Papers. G—33—1. Documents 14 through 16.

  CHAPTER 33

  1 Isaiah Friedman, The Question of Palestine, 1914–1918, British-Jewish-Arab Relations (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1973), p. 123.

  2 Vladimir Jabotinsky, The Story of the Jewish Legion, trans. by Samuel Katz (New York: Bernard Ackerman, 1945), p. 31.

  3 Joseph B. Schechtman, Rebel and Statesman: The Vladimir Jabotinsky Story, the Early Years (New York: Thomas Yoseloff, 1956), pp. 204–7 assigns the major share of the credit to Trumpeldor.

  4 Jabotinsky, The Jewish Legion, p. 66.

  5 Rehovot, Israel. Weizmann Archives. Memorandum of 7 February 1917 meeting; Roger Adelson, Mark Sykes: Portrait of an Amateur (London: Jonathan Cape, 1975), p. 226.