A Peace to End all Peace

by David Fromkin

  2 The Leo Amery Diaries, Vol. 1: 1896–1929, ed. by John Barnes and David Nicholson (London: Hutchinson, 1980), p. 194.

  3 Helmut Mejcher, “Oil and British Policy towards Mesopotamia,” Middle Eastern Studies (October 1972), p. 387.

  4 C. J. Lowe and M. L. Dockrill, The Mirage of Power, Vol. 3: The Documents, British Foreign Policy 1902–22 (London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972), p. 553.

  5 Ibid., pp. 553–4.

  6 Arthur J. Marder, From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow: The Royal Navy in the Fisher Era, 1904–1919, Vol. 5: Victory and Aftermath, January 1918–June 1919 (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), p. 37.

  7 Gwynne Dyer, “The Turkish Armistice of 1918: 1—The Turkish Decision for a Separate Peace, Autumn, 1918” Middle Eastern Studies (May 1972), p. 171, n. 30.

  8 Ibid., pp. 148–9.

  9 Kew. Public Record Office. Arab Bureau Papers. Foreign Office 882. Vol. 18. Document TU/18/3.

  10 Dyer, “The Turkish Armistice: 1,” p. 148.

  11 Ibid., p. 152.

  12 Charles Vere Ferres Townshend, My Campaign (New York: James A. McCann, 1920), Vol. 2, pp. 276 et seq.

  13 Dyer, “The Turkish Armistice: 1,” p. 161.

  14 War Memoirs of David Lloyd George, Vol. 6: 1918 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1937), p. 278.

  15 Ibid.

  16 Ibid.

  17 Stephen Roskill, Hankey: Man of Secrets, Vol. 1: 1877–1918 (London: Collins, 1970), pp. 619 et seq.

  18 David Robin Watson, Georges Clemenceau: A Political Biography (London: Eyre Methuen, 1974), p. 371.

  19 Dyer, “The Turkish Armistice: 2.”

  20 Salahi Ramsdan Sonyel, Turkish Diplomacy, 1918–1923: Mustafa Kemal and the Turkish National Movement (London and Beverly Hills: SAGE Publications, 1975), p. 3.

  21 Erik Jan Zurcher, The Unionist Factor: The Role of the Committee of Union and Progress in the Turkish National Movement 1905–1926 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1984), p. 72.

  22 Watson, Clemenceau, p. 367.

  23 Lloyd George, War Memoirs, Vol. 6, pp. 279–80.

  24 Roskill, Hankey, Vol. 1, p. 609.

  25 Lowe and Dockrill, The Mirage of Power, Vol. 2, p. 359.

  26 The Letters and Papers of Chaim Weizmann, Vol. 8, Series A: November 1917–October 1918, ed. by Dvorah Barzilay and Barnet Litvinoff (Jerusalem: Israel University Press, 1977), pp. 278–9.

  27 Roskill, Hankey, Vol. 1, p. 594.

  28 Balfour’s memorandum, quoted in Elizabeth Monroe, Britain’s Moment in the Middle East: 1914–1971, rev. edn (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), pp. 50–1.

  29 Michael L. Dockrill and J. Douglas Goold, Peace without Promise: Britain and the Peace Conferences, 1919–1923 (London: Batsford Academic and Educational, 1981), p. 146.

  30 Christopher M. Andrew and A. S. Kanya-Forstner, The Climax of French Imperial Expansion: 1914–1924 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981), p. 172.

  31 Briton Cooper Busch, Britain, India, and the Arabs, 1914–1921 (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1971), p. 163.

  32 John Darwin, Britain, Egypt, and the Middle East: Imperial Policy in the Aftermath of War, 1918–1922 (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1981), p. 160.

  33 London. House of Lords Record Office. Beaverbrook Collection. Lloyd George Papers. F—205—3. Document 9.

  34 Ibid. Document 7.

  35 David Lloyd George, Memoirs of the Peace Conference (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1939), Vol. 2, pp. 665–8.

  36 Frances Stevenson, Lloyd George: A Diary, ed. by A. J. P. Taylor (New York and London: Harper & Row, 1971), p. 174.

  37 London. House of Lords Record Office. Beaverbrook Collection. Lloyd George Papers. F—39—1—10.

  38 Ibid. F—205—3. Document 7.

  39 Ibid. F—36—6—56.

  40 Lord Riddell’s Intimate Diary of the Peace Conference and after: 1918–1923 (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1934), p. 25.

  41 Desmond Stewart, T. E. Lawrence (New York and London: Harper & Row, 1977), p. 133; T. E. Lawrence, Seven Pillars of Wisdom (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Doran & Company, Inc., 1935), ch. 6.

  42 William H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1976), p. 255.

  43 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 14th edn, s.v. “Influenza” Encyclopaedia Britannica, 12th edn, s.v. “Turkish Campaigns.”

  CHAPTER 40

  1 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume, Vol. 4, Part 1: January 1917–June 1919 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), p. 412.

  2 Kenneth O. Morgan, Lloyd George (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1974), p. 126.

  3 Charles Loch Mowat, Britain between the Wars 1918–1940 (London: Methuen University Paperback, 1968), p. 11.

  4 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, p. 450.

  5 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, Vol. 4: 1916–1922, The Stricken World (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975), pp. 179–80.

  6 Howard M. Sachar, The Emergence of the Middle East: 1914–1924 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969), p. 246.

  7 Paul C. Helmreich, From Paris to Sèvres: The Partition of the Ottoman Empire at the Peace Conference of 1919–1920 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1974), p. 28.

  8 Elizabeth Monroe, Britain’s Moment in the Middle East: 1914–1971, rev. edn (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), p. 37.

  9 Ibid., p. 38.

  10 Winston S. Churchill, The Aftermath: Being a Sequel to the World Crisis (London: Macmillan, 1941), p. 60.

  11 Gilbert, Churchill: The Stricken World, p. 182.

  12 Gilbert, Churchill: Companion Volume, pp. 463–4.

  13 Gilbert, Churchill: The Stricken World, p. 194.

  14 Ibid., p. 196.

  15 Ibid., p. 194.

  16 Kenneth O. Morgan, Consensus and Disunity: The Lloyd George Coalition Government 1918–1922 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979), p. 146.

  17 John Darwin, Britain, Egypt, and the Middle East: Imperial Policy in the Aftermath of War, 1918–1922 (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1981), p. 12; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th edn, s.v. “Indian Subcontinent, History of the.”

  18 Gilbert, Churchill: The Stricken World, pp. 477–8.

  19 Arno J. Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking: Containment and Counterrevolution at Versailles 1918–1919 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967), p. 139.

  CHAPTER 41

  1 John Maynard Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Howe, 1920), p. 38.

  2 Ibid., p. 46.

  3 Stephen Roskill, Hankey: Man of Secrets, Vol. 2: 1919–1931 (London: Collins, 1972), p. 38.

  4 Paul C. Helmreich, From Paris to Sèvres: The Partition of the Ottoman Empire at the Peace Conference of 1919–1920 (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1974), p. 18.

  5 Ibid., pp. 19–20.

  6 Ibid., p. 94.

  7 Ibid., p. 95.

  8 Ibid.

  9 Roskill, Hankey, Vol. 2, p. 72.

  10 Ibid., p. 80.

  11 Ibid., p. 81.

  12 David Lloyd George, Memoirs of the Peace Conference (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1939), Vol. 2, p. 691.

  13 Leonard Baker, Brandeis and Frankfurter: A Dual Biography (New York: Harper & Row, 1984), p. 171.

  14 Christopher M. Andrew and A. S. Kanya-Forstner, The Climax of French Imperial Expansion: 1914–1924 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981), p. 197.

  15 Ibid., p. 162.

  16 Ibid., p. 194.

  17 Ibid., p. 189.

  18 Helmreich, Paris to Sèvres, p. 131.

  19 Ibid., p. 139.

  20 Lloyd George, Memoirs, p. 818.

  21 Ibid., p. 26.

  22 Lloyd George, Memoirs, p. 818.

  23 Ibid., p. 711.

  24 Ibid., p. 820.

  25 Baker, Brandeis and Frankfurter, p. 170.

  26 Roskill, Hankey, Vol. 2, p. 213.

  27 Ibid., p. 89.

  28 Daniele Varè, Laughing Diplomat (London: John Mur
ray, 1938), p. 155.

  29 Helmreich, Paris to Sèvres, p. 178.

  30 Lord Riddell’s Intimate Diary of the Peace Conference and after: 1918–1923 (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1934), p. 24.

  31 Lloyd George, Memoirs, p. 491.

  32 Ibid., pp. 723–4.

  CHAPTER 42

  1 Stephen Roskill, Hankey: Man of Secrets, Vol. 2: 1919–1931 (London: Collins, 1972), p. 141.

  2 Jukka Nevakivi, Britain, France and the Arab Middle East 1914–1920 (London: Athlone Press, 1969), p. 104.

  3 Paul C. Helmreich, From Paris to Sèvres: The Partition of the Ottoman Empire at the Peace Conference of 1919–1920 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1974), p. 28.

  4 John Darwin, Britain, Egypt, and the Middle East: Imperial Policy in the Aftermath of War, 1918–1922 (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1981), p. 172.

  5 Roskill, Hankey, Vol. 2, p. 70.

  6 Ibid., p. 115.

  7 Ibid.

  8 Erik Jan Zurcher, The Unionist Factor: The Role of the Committee of Union and Progress in the Turkish National Movement 1905–1926 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1984), pp. 68 et seq.

  9 Ibid., pp. 95–6.

  10 David Lloyd George, Memoirs of the Peace Conference (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1939), Vol. 2, p. 830.

  11 Nevakivi, Britain, France and the Arab Middle East, p. 210.

  12 C. Ernest Dawn, From Ottomanism to Arabism: Essays on the Origins of Arab Nationalism (Urbana, Chicago and London: University of Illinois Press, 1973), p. 158.

  13 Ibid., p. 178, app. 7. Cf. Elie Kedourie, England and the Middle East: The Destruction of the Ottoman Empire, 1914–1921 (Hassocks, Sussex: Harvester Press, 1978), p. 159.

  14 Lord Riddell’s Intimate Diary of the Peace Conference and after: 1918–1923 (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1934), p. 112.

  CHAPTER 44

  1 P. J. Vatikiotis, The History of Egypt, 2nd edn (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), pp. 250 et seq. The account provided in the text is principally based upon it and upon John Darwin, Britain, Egypt and the Middle East: Imperial Policy in the Aftermath of the War, 1918–1922 (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1981).

  2 Sir James Rennell Rodd, a member of Lord Milner’s mission to Egypt, 1920. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 12th edn, s.v. “Egypt.”

  3 Darwin, Middle East, p. 68.

  4 Ibid., p. 71.

  5 Durham. University of Durham. Sudan Archive. Reginald Wingate Papers. 470/7.

  6 Darwin, Middle East, p. 77.

  7 Ibid., p. 72.

  8 Ibid., p. 74.

  9 Ibid.

  10 Vatikiotis, Egypt, p. 265.

  CHAPTER 45

  1 T. A. Heathcote, The Afghan Wars: 1839–1919 (London: Osprey, 1980), p. 172.

  2 Leon B. Poullada, Reform and Rebellion in Afghanistan, 1919–1929: King Amanullah’s Failure to Modernize a Tribal Society (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1973), p. 239.

  3 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 12th edn, s.v. “Afghanistan.”

  4 Heathcote, Afghan Wars, p. 179.

  5 Poullada, Reform and Rebellion, p. 238, n. 11.

  6 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 12th edn, s.v. “Afghanistan,” according to which the treaty was concluded in 1920.

  7 Poullada, Reform and Rebellion, p. 228.

  8 Ibid., p. 247, n. 29.

  CHAPTER 46

  1 Briton Cooper Busch, Britain, India, and the Arabs, 1914–1921 (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1971), p. 324.

  2 Ibid.

  3 David Holden and Richard Johns, The House of Saud: The Rise and Fall of the Most Powerful Dynasty in the Arab World (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1981), p. 69; Christine Moss Helms, The Cohesion of Saudi Arabia: Evolution of Political Identity (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), p. 129; J. B. Kelly, Arabia, the Gulf and the West (New York: Basic Books, 1980), p. 230.

  4 Holden and Johns, Saud, p. 71; Gary Troeller, The Birth of Saudi Arabia: Britain and the Rise of the House of Saud (London: Frank Cass, 1976), p. 142.

  5 Troeller, Saudi Arabia, pp. 142–3; Busch, Britain, India, and the Arabs, pp. 328 et seq.; Holden and Johns, Saud, p. 72.

  6 Helms, Saudi Arabia, p. 127.

  7 Robert Vansittart, quoted in Busch, Britain, India, and the Arabs, p. 330.

  8 Holden and Johns, Saud, p. 72.

  CHAPTER 47

  1 Michael L. Dockrill and J. Douglas Goold, Peace without Promise: Britain and the Peace Conferences, 1919–1923 (London: Batsford Academic and Educational, 1981), p. 198.

  2 Ibid., p. 199.

  3 Ibid., p. 210.

  4 Christopher M. Andrew and A. S. Kanya-Forstner, The Climax of French Imperial Expansion: 1914–1924 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981), p. 215.

  5 Roderic H. Davison, “Turkish Diplomacy from Mudros to Lausanne,” in Gordon A. Craig and Felix Gilbert (eds), The Diplomats, 1919–1939 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1953), p. 181.

  6 Stanford J. Shaw and Ezel Kural Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol. 2: Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808–1975 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), p. 348.

  7 Davison, “Turkish Diplomacy,” p. 181.

  8 Shaw and Shaw, Ottoman Empire, p. 349.

  9 Davison, “Turkish Diplomacy,” p. 181.

  10 Shaw and Shaw, Ottoman Empire, pp. 352–3.

  11 Davison, “Turkish Diplomacy,” p. 183.

  12 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 12th edn, s.v. “Turkey (Nationalist).”

  13 Salahi Ramsdan Sonyel, Turkish Diplomacy, 1918–1923: Mustafa Kemal and the Turkish National Movement (London and Beverly Hills: SAGE Publications, 1975), pp. 62–5.

  14 Lord Riddell’s Intimate Diary of the Peace Conference and after: 1918–1923 (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1934), p. 208.

  15 Michael Llewellyn Smith, Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor, 1919–1922 (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1973), p. 124.

  16 Dockrill and Goold, Peace without Promise, p. 215.

  17 Smith, Ionian Vision, pp. 132–3.

  18 Winston S. Churchill, The Aftermath: Being a Sequel to the World Crisis (London: Macmillan, 1941), p. 386.

  19 Smith, Ionian Vision, p. 163.

  20 Ibid., p. 164.

  21 Ibid., p. 185.

  22 Ibid., p. 186.

  23 Ibid., p. 184.

  CHAPTER 48

  1 Elie Kedourie, England and the Middle East: The Destruction of the Ottoman Empire, 1914–1921 (Hassocks, Sussex: Harvester Press, 1978), pp. 157–62.

  2 Philip S. Khoury, Urban Notables and Arab Nationalism: The Politics of Damascus 1860–1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 86–8.

  3 Ibid., p. 88.

  4 Christopher M. Andrew and A. S. Kanya-Forstner, The Climax of French Imperial Expansion: 1914–1924 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981), p. 204.

  5 Ibid., p. 215.

  6 Jukka Nevakivi, Britain, France and the Arab Middle East, 1914–1920 (London: Athlone Press, 1969), p. 216.

  7 The account in the text follows Khoury, Urban Notables and Arab Nationalism; and Y. Porath, The Emergence of the Palestinian-Arab National Movement 1918–1929 (London: Frank Cass, 1974).

  8 Nevakivi, Britain, France and the Arab Middle East, p. 216.

  9 Aaron S. Klieman, Foundations of British Policy in the Arab World: The Cairo Conference of 1921 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1970), pp. 46–7.

  10 Ibid.

  11 Ibid.

  12 Ibid., pp. 216–17.

  13 Andrew and Kanya-Forstner, French Imperial Expansion, p. 215.

  14 Ibid., p. 216.

  15 Howard M. Sachar, The Emergence of the Middle East: 1914–1924 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969), p. 287.

  16 Ibid., p. 288.

  17 Klieman, Foundations of British Policy, p. 51.

  18 Elie Kedourie, Islam in the Modern World and Other Studies (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1981), pp. 85 et seq.

  19 Joh
n Darwin, Britain, Egypt, and the Middle East: Imperial Policy in the Aftermath of War, 1918–1922 (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1981), p. 183.

  CHAPTER 49

  1 Christopher M. Andrew and A. S. Kanya-Forstner, The Climax of French Imperial Expansion: 1914–1924 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981), p. 220.

  2 Ibid.

  3 Ibid.

  4 Ibid.

  5 Ibid.

  6 Ibid., p. 217.

  7 Aaron S. Klieman, Foundations of British Policy in the Arab World: The Cairo Conference of 1921 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1970), p. 72.

  8 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. C. D. Brunton Papers. DS 126—DS 154.5, no. 2.

  9 Ibid.

  10 Ibid., no. 3.

  11 Ibid.

  12 Ibid.

  13 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. F.R. Somerset Papers. DS 97.59.

  14 Ibid., DS 126, DS 149, DS 154.5.

  15 Ibid.

  CHAPTER 50

  1 Howard M. Sachar, A History of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism to Our Time (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1976), p. 123.

  2 Joseph B. Schechtman, Rebel and Statesman: The Vladimir Jabotinsky Story, the Early Years (New York: Thomas Yoseloff, 1956), p. 328.

  3 Ibid., pp. 329 et seq.; Sachar, History of Israel, p. 123.

  4 Sachar, History of Israel, pp. 123–4.

  5 Oxford. Rhodes House. Richard Meinertzhagen Diaries. Vol. 21, p. 126 (12—31—19).

  6 Ibid., p. 143 (4 July 1920).

  7 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, Vol. 4: 1916–1922, The Stricken World (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975), pp. 484–5.

  CHAPTER 51

  1 H. V. F. Winstone, Gertrude Bell (London: Jonathan Cape, 1978), p. 207.

  2 Ibid., p. 209.

  3 Ibid., p. 215.

  4 Ibid.

  5 Elie Kedourie, England and the Middle East: The Destruction of the Ottoman Empire, 1914–1921 (Hassocks, Sussex: Harvester Press, 1978), p. 191.

  6 Winstone, Bell, p. 215.

  7 Ibid., p. 219.

  8 Jukka Nevakivi, Britain, France and the Arab Middle East, 1914–1920 (London: Athlone Press, 1969), p. 177.

  9 Winstone, Bell, p. 220.

  10 Ibid., p. 222.

  11 Howard M. Sachar, The Emergence of the Middle East: 1914–1924 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969), p. 371.

  12 Kedourie, Middle East, p. 192.

  13 H. V. F. Winstone, Leachman: ‘OC Desert’ (London and New York: Quartet Books, 1982), p. 208.