A Peace to End all Peace

by David Fromkin

  6 L. S. Amery, My Political Life, Vol. 2: War and Peace: 1914–1929 (London: Hutchinson, 1953), p. 115.

  7 George Antonius, The Arab Awakening: The Story of the Arab National Movement (New York: Capricorn Books, 1965), p. 412.

  8 The Leo Amery Diaries, Vol 1: 1896–1929, ed. by John Barnes and David Nicholson (London: Hutchinson, 1980), p. 137.

  9 W. K. Hancock, Smuts: The Sanguine Years, 1870–1919 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962), p. 426.

  10 Lord Beaverbrook, Men and Power 1917–1918 (London: Hutchinson, 1956), pp. xxiv–xxv; A. J. P. Taylor, English History 1914–1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965), p. 82.

  11 War Memoirs of Lloyd George, Vol. 4: 1917 (Boston, Little, Brown, 1934), p. 90.

  12 Ibid., pp. 66–7.

  13 Selections from the Smuts Papers, Vol. 3: June 1910–November 1918, ed. by W. K. Hancock and Jean Van Der Poel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966), p. 465.

  14 Ibid., p. 500.

  15 Hancock, Smuts, pp. 434–5.

  16 Selections from the Smuts Papers, Vol. 5: September 1919–November 1934, ed. by Jean Van Der Poel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973), p. 25.

  17 Ibid., p. 18.

  18 Hancock, Smuts, pp. 434–5.

  19 The Smuts Papers, Vol. 4: November 1918–August 1919, ed. by W. K. Hancock and Jean Van Der Poel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966), pp. 26–7.

  20 Amery, My Political Life, p. 116.

  CHAPTER 34

  1 Rehovot, Israel. Weizmann Archives. Sacher letter, 2 February 1917; Scott letter, 3 February 1917; Weizmann letter, 3 February 1917.

  2 Rehovot, Israel. Weizmann Archives. Memorandum of 7 February 1917 meeting.

  3 Ibid.

  4 Rehovot, Israel. Weizmann Archives. Notes of 8 February 1918 meeting.

  5 Ronald Sanders, The High Walls of Jerusalem: A History of the Balfour Declaration and the Birth of the British Mandate for Palestine (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1983), p. 466.

  6 Roger Adelson, Mark Sykes: Portrait of an Amateur (London: Jonathan Cape, 1975), p. 225.

  7 Christopher M. Andrew and A. S. Kanya-Forstner, The Climax of French Imperial Expansion: 1914–1924 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981), p. 124.

  8 Adelson, Sykes, p. 225.

  9 Sanders, The High Walls of Jerusalem, p. 493.

  10 Rehovot, Israel. Weizmann Archives. Sledmere Papers. Notes of conference held at 10 Downing St, 3 April 1917.

  11 Ibid.

  12 Ibid.

  13 Adelson, Sykes, p. 227.

  14 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Mark Sykes Papers. DS 149.

  15 Ibid. DS 149 (DR 588.25).

  16 Kingston upon Hull. University of Hull. Brynmor Jones Library. Mark Sykes Papers, DDSY(2). 12–7.

  17 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Mark Sykes Papers. DS 149; Adelson, Sykes, p. 229.

  18 Adelson, Sykes, p. 231.

  19 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Mark Sykes Papers. DR 588.25.

  20 Ibid. DR 588.25 (DS 42.1).

  21 Adelson, Sykes, p. 229.

  22 Rehovot, Israel. Weizmann Archives. Sledmere Papers. 14 August 1917.

  23 The Leo Amery Diaries, Vol. 1: 1896–1929, ed. by John Barnes and David Nicholson (London: Hutchinson, 1980), p. 170.

  24 Kenneth Rose, The Later Cecils (New York and London: Harper & Row, 1975), p. 153.

  25 Philip Guedalla, Men of Affairs (London: Hodder & Stoughton, n. d.), p. 193.

  26 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Mark Sykes Papers. DR 588.25.

  27 Andrew and Kanya-Forstner, French Imperial Expansion, p. 129.

  28 Sanders, The High Walls of Jerusalem, p. 534.

  29 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: Companion Volume, Vol. 4, Part 1: January 1917–June 1919 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), p. 107.

  30 David Lloyd George, Memoirs of the Peace Conference (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1939), Vol. 2, p. 733.

  31 There were 130,000 purchasers of the shekel that signified adherence, according to Leonard Stein, The Balfour Declaration (London: Valentine Mitchell, 1961), p. 66. The world Jewish population was estimated to be 11,500,000 by the American Jewish Year-Book for 1909–10. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th edn., s.v. “Jews.”

  32 Isiah Friedman, The Question of Palestine, 1914–1918, British-Jewish-Arab Relations (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1973), p. 178.

  33 Walter Laqueur, A History of Zionism (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1972), p. 184.

  34 Rehovot, Israel. Weizmann Archives. Sir R. Graham letter to General Wingate, 21 September 1917.

  35 Amery Diaries, p. 170.

  36 Stein, Balfour Declaration, p. 529; Laqueur, Zionism, p. 181.

  37 Trial and Error: The Autobiography of Chaim Weizmann (New York: Harper, 1949), p. 179.

  38 London. House of Lords Record Office. Beaverbrook Collection. Lloyd George Papers. F—3—2—34.

  39 Ibid.

  40 Weizmann, Trial and Error, p. 208.

  41 Lloyd George, Peace Conference, Vol. 2, p. 669.

  42 Ibid., Vol. 3, p. 737.

  43 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Balfour Declaration.

  44 Ibid.

  45 Lloyd George, Peace Conference, Vol. 2, p. 723.

  46 Ibid., p. 737.

  47 Ezekiel Rabinowitz, Justice Louis D. Brandeis: The Zionist Chapter of His Life (New York: Philosophical Library, 1968), p. 6.

  48 Michael E. Parrish, Felix Frankfurter and His Times—The Reform Years (New York: Free Press, and London: Collier Macmillan, 1982), p. 135.

  49 Leonard Baker, Brandeis and Frankfurter: A Dual Biography (New York: Harper & Row, 1984), p. 74.

  50 Ibid.

  51 Rabinowitz, Brandeis, p. 4.

  52 Alpheus Thomas Mason, Brandeis: A Free Man’s Life (New York: Viking Press, 1946), p. 446.

  53 Letters of Louis D. Brandeis, Vol. 4: (1916–1921): Mr. Justice Brandeis, ed. by Melvin I. Urofsky and David W. Levy (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1975), p. 355.

  54 Amery Diaries, p. 189.

  55 Selections from the Smuts Papers, Vol. 3: June 1910–November 1918, ed. by W. K. Hancock and Jean Van Der Poel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966), p. 503.

  CHAPTER 35

  1 Briton Cooper Busch, Britain, India, and the Arabs, 1914–1921 (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1971), p. 121.

  2 Ibid., pp. 139–40.

  3 Desmond Stewart, T. E. Lawrence (New York and London: Harper & Row, 1977), pp. 166–8.

  4 Kew. Public Record Office. Arab Bureau Papers. Foreign Office 882. Vol. 18. Document TU/17/3.

  5 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Allenby Papers. DS 244.4.

  6 War Memoirs of David Lloyd George, Vol. 6: 1918 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1937), p. 203.

  7 General Ed. Brémond, Le Hedjaz dans la guerre mondiale (Paris: Payot, 1931), p. 9.

  8 David Holden and Richard Johns, The House of Saud: The Rise and Fall of the Most Powerful Dynasty in the Arab World (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1981), p. 53.

  9 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. William Yale Papers. DS 149, DS 244.4, DS 126.1.

  10 War Memoirs of David Lloyd George, Vol. 4: 1917 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1934), p. 98.

  11 Ibid., p. 573.

  CHAPTER 36

  1 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Mark Sykes Papers. DR 588.25.

  2 Ibid. (DR 588.25) DS 42.1.

  3 Ibid. Sir Gilbert F. Clayton Letter 3—8—16. DT 107.2 CG (DS 42.1).

  4 Rehovot, Israel. Weizmann Archives. Clayton to Deedes, 6 September 1917.

  5 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Mark Sykes papers. (DR 588.25) DS 42.1.

  6 Ibid. (DR 588.25) DS 149.

  7 Ibid. (DR 588.25) DT 82.97.

  8 Kew. Public Record Office. War Cabinet, Middle East Committee. CAB 27/23, p. 154.

  9 Trial and
Error: The Autobiography of Chaim Weizmann (New York: Harper 1949), p. 181.

  10 Roger Adelson, Mark Sykes: Portrait of an Amateur (London: Jonathan Cape, 1975), p. 264.

  11 Kingston upon Hull. University of Hull. Brynmor Jones Library. Mark Sykes Papers. 11–61.

  12 Rehovot, Israel. Weizmann Archives. Clayton to Sykes, 15 December 1917.

  13 Ibid. Sykes to Clayton, 14 November 1917.

  14 Ibid. Sykes to Clayton, 1 December 1917.

  15 Ibid. Sykes to Picot, 12 December 1917.

  16 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Mark Sykes Papers. DS 42.1. DR 588.25.

  17 Ibid. (DS 149) DS 161.

  18 Rehovot, Israel. Weizmann Archives. Clayton to Sykes, 15 December 1917.

  19 Ibid. Wingate to Allenby, 16 December 1917.

  20 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. William Yale Papers. DS 125.52, DS 126.1, DS 151.92.

  21 Kew. Public Record Office. Arab Bureau Papers. Foreign Office 882. Vol. 17. Document 19A, pp. 4–5.

  22 Ibid. Vol. 24. Document 36757.

  23 Rehovot, Israel. Weizmann Archives. Deedes to Foreign Office, 19 November 1917.

  24 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Mark Sykes Papers. (DS 125) DS 125.3.01.

  25 Ibid. DS 125.

  26 Durham. University of Durham. Sudan Archive. Clayton Key Papers. G//S 513. File 1.

  27 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Mark Sykes Papers. (DS 125) DS 149.

  28 Kingston upon Hull. University of Hull. Brynmor Jones Library. Mark Sykes Papers. 11–101.

  29 Kew. Public Record Office. War Cabinet, Middle East Committee. CAB 27/23, p. 132.

  30 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Feisal Papers. B–31.

  31 The Letters and Papers of Chaim Weizmann, Vol. 8, Series A: November 1917–October 1918, ed. by Dvorah Barzilay and Barnet Litvinoff (Jerusalem: Israel University Press, 1977), p. 210.

  32 Reprinted in Palestine Papers 1917–1922 Seeds of Conflict, compiled and annotated by Doreen Ingrams (London: John Murray, 1972), p. 33.

  33 Ibid., p. 37; Kew. Public Record Office. Arab Bureau Papers. Foreign Office 882. Vol. 24. Document 105824.

  34 Kew. Public Record Office. Arab Bureau Papers. Foreign Office 882. Vol. 24. Document 92392; Ingrams, Palestine Papers, pp. 24–6.

  35 The Leo Amery Diaries, Vol. 1: 1896–1929, ed. by John Barnes and David Nicholson (London: Hutchinson, 1980), p. 206.

  36 Briton Cooper Busch, Britain, India, and the Arabs, 1914–1921 (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1971), p. 156; H. V. F. Winstone, Gertrude Bell (London: Jonathan Cape, 1978), p. 202.

  37 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Mark Sykes Papers. DR 588.25.

  38 Ibid. DR 588.

  39 Ibid. (DR 588.25) DS 149.

  40 Kew. Public Record Office. War Cabinet, Middle East Committee. CAB 27/23, pp. 127–8.

  41 Kew. Public Record Office. Arab Bureau Papers. Foreign Office 882. Vol. 18. (TU/15/5 (6).

  42 Ibid. Vol. 20. M1/19/3.

  43 Ibid. Vol. 20. HM/19/1.

  44 Ibid. Vol. 17. Document 26.

  45 Colonel R. Meinertzhagen, Middle East Diary 1917–1956 (London: Cresset Press, 1959), p. 28.

  46 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Mark Sykes Papers. DR 588.

  47 Liman von Sanders, Five Years in Turkey (Annapolis: United States Naval Institute, 1927), pp. 306–20.

  48 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Feisal Papers. 0–14.

  49 Durham. University of Durham. Sudan Archive. Reginald Wingate Papers. 149/7/1–109.

  50 Kew. Public Record Office. Arab Bureau Papers. Foreign Office 882. Vol. 17. Document 33.

  51 Ingrams, Palestine Papers, p. 33.

  52 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Mark Sykes Papers. DS 588.25.

  53 Ibid. DR 588.25.

  54 Ibid.

  55 Kew. Public Record Office. Arab Bureau Papers. Foreign Office 882. Vol. 17, pp. 97–103.

  56 Christopher M. Andrew and A. S. Kanya-Forstner, The Climax of French Imperial Expansion: 1914–1924 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981), p. 162.

  CHAPTER 37

  1 The account in the text owes much to the lively narrative of Howard M. Sachar, The Emergence of the Middle East: 1914–1924 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969) at pp. 238 et seq. as well as to the eyewitness account in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 12th edn, s.v. “Turkish Campaigns.”

  2 Kew. Public Record Office. Arab Bureau Papers. Foreign Office 883. Vol. 17, pp. 104–5.

  3 The Leo Amery Diaries, Vol. 1: 1896–1929, ed. by John Barnes and David Nicholson (London: Hutchinson, 1980), p. 241.

  4 Oxford. Bodleian Library. Milner Papers. Palestine. 140/64.

  5 Ibid. 140/54.

  6 Ibid. 140/56.

  7 Kew. Public Record Office. Arab Bureau Papers. Foreign Office 882. Vol. 24. Document 36757.

  8 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Allenby Papers. DS 244.4.

  9 Durham. University of Durham. Sudan Archive. Reginald Wingate Papers. 149/9/1–158.

  10 Ibid. 150/1/1–105.

  11 Oxford. Bodleian Library. Milner Papers. Palestine. 140/64.

  12 Durham. University of Durham. Sudan Archive. Reginald Wingate Papers. 150/1/1–105.

  13 Kew. Public Record Office. Arab Bureau Papers. Foreign Office 882. Vol. 17, pp. 119–20.

  14 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Allenby Papers. DS 244.4.

  15 Ibid.

  16 Kew. Public Record Office. War Cabinet, Eastern Committee. CAB 27/24, pp. 148–52.

  17 Durham. University of Durham. Sudan Archive. Reginald Wingate Papers. 150/2/1–112.

  18 Christopher M. Andrew and A. S. Kanya-Forstner, The Climax of French Imperial Expansion: 1914–1924 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981), p. 11.

  19 Ibid., p. 161.

  20 Kew. Public Record Office. War Cabinet, Eastern Committee. CAB 27/24, pp. 148–52.

  21 Jukka Nevakivi, Britain, France and the Arab Middle East 1914–1920 (London: Athlone Press, 1969), p. 72, n. 3.

  22 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Allenby Papers. DS 244.4.

  23 W. T. Massey, Allenby’s Final Triumph (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1920), pp. 18–19.

  24 T. E. Lawrence to His Biographer, Robert Graves (New York: Doubleday, Doran, 1938), p. 104.

  25 Durham. University of Durham. Sudan Archive. Clayton Key Papers. G//S 513. File 1.

  26 Oxford. Bodleian Library. Milner Papers. Palestine. 140/21–22.

  27 Nevakivi, Britain, France and the Arab Middle East, p. 74.

  28 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. Mark Sykes Papers. DR 588.25 (DS 42.1).

  29 Oxford. St Antony’s College. Middle East Centre. David Hogarth Papers. 30 (ii).

  30 Kew. Public Record Office. War Cabinet, Eastern Committee. CAB 27/24, p. 186.

  31 Ibid., p. 187.

  32 Ibid., p. 169.

  33 David Lloyd George, Memoirs of the Peace Conference (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1939), Vol. 2, pp. 664–5.

  34 Ibid., p. 665.

  35 War Memoirs of David Lloyd George, Vol. 4: 1917 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1934), p. 86.

  36 The Letters and Papers of Chaim Weizmann, Vol. 8, Series A: November 1917–October 1918, ed. by Dvorah Barzilay and Barnet Litvinoff (Jerusalem: Israel University Press, 1977), p. 230.

  37 Kew. Public Record Office. War Cabinet, Eastern Committee. CAB 27/24. Minutes of 18 June 1918 meeting.

  38 Ibid. Minutes of 18 July 1918 meeting.

  39 The Amery Diaries, p. 237.

  40 London. King’s College. Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives. Allenby Papers. 1—9—21.

  41 Kew. Public Record Office. Arab Bureau Papers. Foreign Office 882. Vol. 24. Document 92392.

  42 Ibid. Document 123904.

  43 Ibid. Document 138908.

  44 Kew. Public Record Office. War
Cabinet, Eastern Committee. CAB 27/24, pp. 153–61.

  45 Durham. University of Durham. Sudan Archive. Reginald Wingate Papers. 150/10/1–137.

  46 London. King’s College. Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives. Allenby Papers. 1—9—15.

  CHAPTER 38

  1 Kew. Public Record Office. Arab Bureau Papers. Foreign Office 882. Vol. 18. Document TU/17/17.

  2 Ulrich Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman Empire: 1914–1918 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), p. 167.

  3 Frederick Stanwood, War, Revolution and British Imperialism in Central Asia (London: Ithaca Press, 1983), pp. 32–3.

  4 Marian Kent, Oil and Empire: British Policy and Mesopotamian Oil 1900–1920 (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan Press for the London School of Economics, 1976), p. 118.

  5 Trumpener, Ottoman Empire, p. 186.

  6 Firuz Kazemzadeh, The Struggle for Transcaucasia (1917–1921) (New York: Philosophical Library and Oxford: George Ronald, 1951), p. 135.

  7 The account that follows is in large part based on C. H. Ellis, The Transcaspian Episode: 1918–1919 (London: Hutchinson, 1963); and Richard H. Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Relations, 1917–1921: Intervention and the War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961).

  8 Stanwood, Central Asia, p. 134.

  9 Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Relations, p. 304.

  10 The Leo Amery Diaries, Vol. 1: 1896–1929, ed. by John Barnes and David Nicholson (London: Hutchinson, 1980), p. 188.

  11 Ibid., p. 173.

  12 Stanwood, Central Asia, p. 139.

  13 The Amery Diaries, p. 173.

  14 Ibid., pp. 175–6.

  15 Ibid., p. 194.

  16 Stanwood, Central Asia, pp. 146–7.

  17 Ibid.

  18 Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Relations, pp. 304–5.

  19 Trumpener, Ottoman Empire, pp. 188–91.

  20 Ellis, Transcaspian Episode, p. 39; Kazemzadeh, Transcaucasia, pp. 135 et seq.

  21 Durham. University of Durham. Sudan Archive. Reginald Wingate Papers. 149/8/1—93.

  22 London. House of Lords Record Office. Beaverbrook Collection. Lloyd George Papers. F—6—1. Document 13.

  23 Kazemzadeh, Transcaucasia, p. 147.

  24 Trumpener, Ottoman Empire, p. 193.

  25 Ibid.

  26 Ibid., p. 194.

  27 Ellis, Transcaspian Episode, p. 52.

  CHAPTER 39

  1 Gwynne Dyer, “The Turkish Armistice of 1918: 2—A Lost Opportunity: The Armistice Negotiations of Moudros,” Middle Eastern Studies (October 1972), p. 315.