Beyond Hawai'i Native Labor in the Pacific World

by Gregory Rosenthal

  Campbell, Archibald, 53

  canaca. See kanakas

  Canada, sovereignty, 43

  “Canaka Boy” (worker), 144

  cane. See sugarcane industry

  capitalism: in agricultural transformation, 169–70; changes in 18–19th centuries, 21–22; influence in Hawaiʻi, 9–11, 34, 47, 203, 204–7; and land in Hawaiʻi, 9, 161; and makaʻāinana, 80, 169; overview, 1–2, 47; and Pacific World, 8–9, 167; and sandalwood, 16–17, 23, 30, 34; and sugar industry, 166–67, 195, 200–201

  Captain Johnney and Johney Wina, 143

  Castle & Cooke firm, 176

  Catherine bark, 66

  cattle: at Haʻikū, 181, 182; hides and tallow trade in California, 136–39, 138fig.

  cetaceans. See whales

  Chang, David, 7, 8

  Channel Islands (CA) work, 139–40

  Chappell, David, 67, 68

  chiefs. See aliʻi

  China: free trade, 41; opium trade and war, 38–39, 40, 41; sandalwood trade and imports, 26–27, 27fig., 38, 39; sandalwood use, 25–26; workers for abroad, 171. See also Qing Empire

  “Chinese disease.” See maʻi Pākē

  Chinese people: early sugar industry in Hawaiʻi, 167–69; intermarriage with Hawaiians, 187–88; merchants vs. coolies, 190; population in Hawaiʻi, 198; unskilled workers in sugar industry (See coolies)

  Chisholm, William, 116, 121–22, 124–25, 126–27

  Christian, Fletcher, 61

  Christians in Hawaiʻi, on prostitution, 87

  citizenship of Hawaiians in United States, 162–64

  Clark, A. Howard, 56, 58map

  class: emergence of working class, 45, 47, 198, 204; impact in Hawaiʻi, 3, 41–42, 207; and sugar industry, 166, 172, 173–74, 186, 201

  cognate race in Hawaiʻi, 188, 191

  cold in Arctic, 98, 102–3

  colonialism, 5, 206–7

  commoners. See makaʻāinana

  constitution of 1840, 41–42

  contract labor, 45, 148

  contracts of workers: in California, 144; English language in, 117–18, 178, 210; for fence at Haʻikū, 177–78; guano industry and mining, 117–18, 119, 127, 209–10; Hawaiian language in, 117–18, 177–78, 210; in whaling industry, 61, 66, 68

  convict labor, 18, 42

  Cook, James, and ships, 17

  coolies: admixture of races, 187–88, 189, 190–91; behavior and appearance, 174–75; employment, 192–93; feeding and diet, 175–76, 192, 193–95; first arrivals and start in Hawaiʻi, 167, 169, 172; “fitness” as workers, 171, 172–73, 174; impact of free trade, 197; importation, 183, 187, 188–89, 191, 197, 198, 201; and maʻi Pākē, 183, 184–85, 186, 187; population in Hawaiʻi, 198; relationship with Hawaiian workers, 172–73; replacement and displacement of kanakas, 166–67, 170, 171–73, 174, 176, 198–200; science of Chinese bodies, 183–84, 189; suicides, 172, 196; use of law, 196; views of in newspapers, 174, 175, 190

  Coral bark, 70

  Corinthian ship, 93–94

  Corrections Corporation of America (CCA), 203

  corsets, and baleen, 52, 55

  corvée labor of makaʻāinana, 18

  Creighton, Margaret, 66, 96–97

  cultural labor in Hawaiʻi, 206

  D.C. Waterman and Company, 107, 108, 116, 117, 127

  Daily Alta California, 155, 156, 157, 162

  Dana, Richard Henry Jr., 102, 134–36, 137, 139

  Davis, Tom, 136

  deaths in whaling, 94

  Delaware ship, 94

  desertions by workers, 61–62, 64, 179–80

  Desmond ship, 82, 97–98

  diaspora of Hawaiians, 203, 204, 205

  Dimmick, K.H., 142–43, 146

  disease and diseased body: in California, 152–53, 155; epidemics in Hawaiʻi, 3, 44; in guano industry, 126–27; of Hawaiians, 3–4; maʻi Pākē, 183–87; in sugar industry, 193; in whaling in Arctic, 93–94

  Dole, George, 39–40, 108–9

  Dolphin ship, 34–35

  Duhaut-Cilly, Auguste, 16

  economy in Hawaiʻi: changes in 18–19th centuries, 21–23, 41–42, 47; description, 18; economic crisis of 1820s, 34–36; and free trade, 9, 41–43, 197; global influences, 40–41, 49; salt trade, 20; and sea otter fur trade, 17, 18–19, 20

  Edwards, Thomas, 144

  El Dorado County (CA), 148–50

  Ellis, William, 31–32

  Eloy (AZ), 203

  emigration by Hawaiians: for Gold Rush, 145, 146–48, 151–52; legislation, 147–48; overview, 77, 203; for work (See labor in the Pacific)

  English language, in work contracts, 117–18, 178, 210

  environment in Hawaiʻi, impact of capitalism, 10

  Erben, Henry, 102–3

  Eromanga (Vanuatu), 16

  extinction of Hawaiians discourse, 170, 187–88

  farming. See agriculture

  farm life in California, 159, 161–64

  fishing by workers, 123–24, 161, 162

  Fitch, Henry Delano, 139

  Forester ship, 28

  fragrance in Hawaiʻi, 24

  free labor, 41–42, 45

  free trade, 9, 41–43, 197

  French, William, 33, 168

  Frick, Dr., 151–52

  The Friend newspaper, 83, 161, 190–91

  frigatebirds, 111, 112fig., 114, 128

  fur trade. See sea otter fur trade

  Glidden & Williams firm, 107, 116–17

  globalization, 8–9

  glossary of Hawaiian terms, 267–70

  Gold Rush in California: diving for gold, 147; emigration from Hawaiʻi, 145, 146–48, 151–52; image of Hawaiian miners, 147, 148fig.; impact on sugar industry in Hawaiʻi, 169; internal migration by Hawaiians, 146, 160; and land dispossession, 144–45; miners and mining camps, 147, 148–51, 160; mining work and technology, 147, 149–50; missionary presence, 149; wage work, 150, 152; warnings about, 146; working conditions, 151–53

  Gray, Sluman L., 48, 81

  Great Britain: free trade and rights in China, 41; free trade in Hawaiʻi, 42–43; opium trade, 38, 40, 41; sandalwood trade, 26–27, 27fig.; tea trade, 19

  Grossbeck, Lucretia, 153

  Guangzhou (Canton), 17, 25, 27fig., 38

  guano: creation, 114, 115; as fertilizer, 106–7

  guano industry and mining: after-work activities, 123–24; bodies in, 106, 125–26, 130–31; contracts of workers, 117–18, 119, 127, 209–10; deaths in, 127; decline, 107–8; disease and sickness, 126–27; extraction and topography, 121; food and water for workers, 124–25; Hawaiian labor, 107, 108–9, 115–23, 126–27; housing for workers, 120; importance to Hawaiʻi, 108–9; island environment and climate, 123; journey from Hawaiʻi to guano islands, 118; labor of people and seabirds, 105–6, 115; luna, 119, 120–21, 123–24, 126; output by workers, 121–22; recruitment of workers, 116–17; riot of 1865, 126; seabirds in (See seabirds); strength and masculinity, 125–26; wages and cash advances, 119–20, 121fig.; women in, 120; workers’ experiences, 105, 115, 119, 126, 127, 130; work schedules and tasks, 120–21

  guano islands: birds on, 111–15, 127–130; humans and domesticated animals, 127–29; as land, 114–15; as workscape, 106

  Guano Islands Act (1856), 107

  Hae Hawaii ship, 98–99

  Haiku Sugar Company plantation (Haʻikū, Maui): cattle, 181, 182; contract, 177–78; control of land and workers, 176–83; desertions by Hawaiian workers, 179–80; employment at, 192–93; fence, 177–78; food for workers, 175–76, 179–82, 192, 193–97; Hawaiians living on land of plantation, 176, 177; importation of coolies, 183; land boundaries and ownership, 176–79; and maʻi Pākē, 183, 184; negotiations with Hawaiians, 178; pilikia on plantation, 166, 196–97; poi and taro, 181–82; replacement and displacement of kanakas, 166–67, 170, 171–73, 174, 176, 198–200; sickness in workers, 193; violence problem, 196. See also Beckwith, George

  Halaulani, J.A.K., 87

  Ham, Joe, 143, 144

  Hammatt, Charles, 72

&
nbsp; Hannibal ship, 48, 81

  Hansen’s disease. See maʻi Pākē

  harpooning, as whaling job, 91–92

  Harrison ship, 94

  Haskins, Charles Warren, 147

  Hauʻofa, Epeli, 4

  Hawaiʻi (Kingdom), viimap; admixture of races, 187–88, 189, 190–91; Board to Land Laborers / Board of Immigration, 188–89; centrality as whaling port, 60–61; constitution of 1840, 41–42; consul in San Francisco, 155, 157–58; diminishment of nation, 151–53; emigration legislation, 147–48; extinction of Hawaiians discourse, 170, 187–88; as feminine country, 5; importation of coolies, 187, 188–89, 191, 197, 198, 201; legislation for workers, 35, 42, 71, 78; as midway stop in Pacific, 17, 19, 22–23; movement of workers in 19th century, 204–5; overthrow, 206; population, 78–79, 79fig., 145–46, 197, 198; private property, 43–45; rural-to-urban migration, 78–79, 79fig., 86; science of Chinese bodies, 183–84, 189; sovereignty, 42–43; Treaty of Reciprocity (1875), 197; visits and return by migrant laborers, 150, 157; whaling in, 88

  Hawaiʻi (State): Native Hawaiians in, 204; prison system, 203–4; workers in 20th–21st centuries, 204, 206–7

  Hawaiian language. See language (Hawaiian)

  Hawaiian workers. See kanakas

  Hawaii (worker), 149

  Heanu (worker), 126

  heartwood of sandalwood trees, 24

  hide and tallow trade in California, 136–39, 138fig.

  Hill, Samuel, 27–28, 34

  Hillebrand, William, 188, 189–90

  Hilo, as whaling port, 87

  Hina, Jack, and Mary, 145

  Hiram (worker), 180

  Hitchcock, Charles, 157–58

  Hoikeike (resident of Lāhainā), 184–85

  Hollingsworth, Robert J., 171–72

  Honokaa Sugar Company (Honokaʻa, Hawaiʻi), 200

  Honolulu, as whaling port, 50, 65–66, 75, 77–78, 79, 84–86

  hoʻokupu, in economy, 18

  Hooper, William, 168, 169

  Hope (worker), 136

  Howland Island, 105, 107, 114, 124

  Hungtai Company, 167

  Hunnewell, James, 23, 28–29, 30, 33, 38

  ice in Arctic, 99–100

  identity. See race and identity

  Igler, David, 134

  illumination, products for, 51, 53

  Imada, Adria, 5

  immigration: arrivals in Hawaiʻi, 198, 199fig.; Board to Land Laborers / Board of Immigration, 188–89; in United States, 188. See also emigration by Hawaiians

  incense of sandalwood, 25–26

  Indians (of California) and Hawaiians, 151

  Inupiat (of Alaska), 98, 100, 101–2

  Irish Creek (CA), 148–50

  Iselin, Isaac, 22

  Isenberg, Andrew, 160

  Ishmael of Moby-Dick, 51, 66–67, 69, 91, 92–93, 96, 97

  Italy whaling ship: crew and recruitment, 59, 62–65; lay and wages, 69–71; seasonality, 61, 62fig.

  Japan, 50

  Jarvis Island, 107, 108, 114–15, 120–21, 128, 129

  John Little ship, 68

  Jones, John C., 19–20, 61–62

  Jones, Thomas ap Catesby, 35

  Josephine ship, 118

  Judd, Albert, 123–24

  Judd, G.P., 105, 117, 118

  Ka Elele Hawaii newspaper, 145, 146

  Kaelemakule, J.A., 91, 167

  Ka Hae Hawaii newspaper: guano, 120, 123; letters about Hawaiians in California, 149, 150, 158–59; letters from California to Hawaiian families, 132–33, 150; on maʻi Pākē, 184–85; as source, 11; view of coolies, 175, 190; on whaling, 73, 88, 104; working conditions of Gold Rush miners, 151–52

  Ka Hoku o Ka Pakipika newspaper, 185

  Kailiopio, J.M.: birds on guano islands, 129; as employee of guano industry, 105–6; experience of guano labor, 105, 115, 119, 126, 127, 130; on food and material goods, 124

  Ka Lahui Hawaii newspaper, 85, 100

  Kalākaua, David, 187–89

  Kalanipoo, J.M., 88

  Kalaupapa peninsula leper colony, 186–87

  Kaleikuahulu (worker), 180

  kalo and paʻi ʻai, for Haʻikū workers, 175–76, 181, 194–95

  Kaluahine, G.W., 123

  Kamae, B.E., 132–33

  Kamakau, Samuel Manaiakalani, 24

  Kamehameha I: economic and political role, 21–22, 30; sandalwood trade, 28, 29–30, 36; on sandalwood workers and wages, 34

  Kamehameha II (Liholiho), and sandalwood, 28, 30, 36

  Kamehameha III. See Kauikeaouli (Kamehameha III)

  Kamehameha IV (Alexander Liholiho), 189; as prince, 154, 172, 174

  Kamehameha V (Lot), 190–91

  Kameʻeleihiwa, Lilikalā, 18, 34, 45–46

  Kamipele, T.B., 152–53, 160

  kanaka / kānaka, definition and use of term, 2, 211n4

  kanakas (Hawaiian workers): body and stereotypes, 3–4; coolies and kanakas, 166–67, 170, 171–73, 174, 176, 198–200; definition, 2, 268; history in newspapers, 11; labor in Hawaiʻi (See labor in Hawaiʻi); migrant labor in Pacific (See labor in the Pacific); proletarianization, 10–11, 47; as slur, 126; term use in book, 2–3, 211–12n4; wage work (See wage work and wage workers); words and writings, 7, 8, 11; work’s meaning for, 4. See also specific topics

  Ka Nupepa Kuokoa newspaper: on guano, 105, 127; Hawaiian landowners in California, 144; life in Vernon, 161; on maʻi Pākē, 185–86; as source, 11; on whaling, 84–85, 98–100

  Kaonowai, J.H., 185–86

  kapa, and perfume, 24

  Kapihe, E.M., 177

  Kapu, John, 159, 160–61, 162

  Kapu, Manneha, 159

  kauā, 188–89

  Kauikeaouli (Kamehameha III): demographic decline in Hawaiʻi, 146; emigration legislation, 148; free trade and free labor, 40–42; land for sugar industry, 168; private property conversion, 44; sandalwood harvesting, 39; sovereignty of Hawaiʻi, 43

  Kaulainamoku, S.W.B., 119, 120, 121, 122, 125–26

  Kawaihae beef production, 181

  Kealoha, Charles Edward: bodily experience of North, 82, 97–98, 103, 104; knowledge and songs of Arctic, 82, 98; life with Inupiat, 98, 100, 103

  Ke Au Okoa newspaper, 186, 188

  Ke Koo o Hawaii newspaper, 90

  Kemaha (seaman), 90–91

  Kenela (of Tahiti), 98, 100

  Kinokolo / Kimokolo (worker), 144

  kō. See sugarcane industry

  koaʻe. See tropicbird

  konohiki, 161

  Kuhaloa, J., 123, 129

  Kuhelemai, J.W., 88

  Kuina (worker), 173

  kukui, 53

  Kuleana Act (1850), 45, 46, 178

  kuleana of author, 12–13

  labor in Hawaiʻi: changes of 1840s, 41–42; foreign influence, 18–19, 47; legislation, 35, 42, 71, 78; and Pacific World, 167; in sandalwood trade, 30, 32–34, 35–36; in sugar industry (See sugarcane industry); traditional practices, 18. See also kanakas; labor in the Pacific; makaʻāinana

  labor in the Pacific: amphibious work, 3–4, 137, 139, 147, 173, 205; in California (See California); guano work (See guano industry and mining); overview, 1–2, 4; and Pacific World, 6, 7–9, 204–5; visits and return to Hawaiʻi, 150, 157; in whaling industry (See whaling industry and workers; whaling work in Arctic). See also kanakas; labor in Hawaiʻi

  Ladd & Company, 168–69

  Lāhainā, as whaling port, 62–63, 64, 72, 73, 84

  land: ahupuaʻa, 18, 32, 46; and capitalism, 9, 161; as commodity, 45; at Haʻikū, 176–79; legislation, 45; for sugar industry, 168. See also ʻāina

  land claims by Hawaiians in California, 145

  land reforms, 9, 45, 205. See also Māhele

  land tenure and title system, 41, 43–46

  language (Hawaiian): in contracts, 117–18, 177–78, 210; glossary of Hawaiian terms, 267–70; materials for Gold Rush miners, 149; in newspapers, 11; terms from Hawaiʻi in Arctic, 100; translations in book, 11–12

  lay in whaling, 68–70, 69f
ig.

  laziness of Hawaiians discourse, 3–4

  Lee, William Little, 44, 47, 146

  Leidesdorff, William A., 143–44

  leper colony on Molokaʻi, 186–87

  leprosy. See maʻi Pākē

  letters to the editor (in newspapers): about Hawaiians in California, 149, 150, 158–59; on “coolie” problem, 174; for families from workers in California, 132–33, 150; as source, 11

  Lewis, Isaiah, 23, 28

  Lewis, Johnny, 144

  Light, Allen (aka Black Steward), 139

  Liholiho, Alexander (Kamehameha IV), 154, 172, 174; as mōʻī, 189

  Liholiho (Kamehameha II), and sandalwood, 28, 30, 36

  Lihue Plantation Company (Līhuʻe, Kauaʻi), 199–200

  Lin Zexu, 41

  lookouts, as whaling job, 90–91

  Lot (Kamehameha V), 190–91

  Macartney, Lord, 38

  Māhele: description, 13; impact on workers, 205, 206; Ka Māhele (The Division), 43–46; legislation, 45; and sugar industry, 176, 177, 206; and whaling industry and workers, 80

  maʻi Pākē (“Chinese disease”), 183–87

  makaʻāinana: agriculture for visiting ships, 72–74; and capitalism, 80, 169; and constitution of 1840, 41–42; corvée labor, 18; private property and land title, 43–46; in production, 18; as proletariat and wage workers, 45, 46, 47, 78, 79–81; rural-to-urban migration, 80, 86; in salt production, 21; sandalwood harvest and labor, 31–32, 33–34, 35–36

  Make (whale worker), 13, 48, 81

  mālama ʻāina, as process, 18

  mana, and sandalwood, 23, 27–28

  Mannini, Mr. (worker), 135

  Manuiki (or Manaiki, Manniki) (worker), 140–41

  Mapuowai, Abel, 162

  maritime work, fitness for, 3–4, 137, 139, 147, 173, 205

  Marx, Karl, 177

  masculinity and manliness of Hawaiians, 89–90, 103, 125–26, 173–74

  Masters and Servants Act (1850), 45, 147–48