87 ANOM, C11A 11: 5–40, Monseignat, “Relation … [1690-1691]”; La Potherie, Histoire, 3: 61; Charlevoix, Histoire, 3: 63–4.
88 For insights into French leadership in intercultural contexts, see MacLeod, Canadian Iroquois; Steele, Betrayals; Haefeli and Sweeney, Captors and Captives; Balvay, L’épée et la plume, 252–6.
89 On this campaign, see ANOM, C11A 11: 5-40, Monseignat, “Relation … [1690-1691]”; La Potherie, Histoire, 3: 67–70; LIR, 158–60; Charlevoix, Histoire, 3: 64–5; Colonial officials had for some time plotted to attack Albany. See ANOM, C11A 11: 186-8, Denonville to Seignelay, [January 1690]. An alternative account, given by three captured French prisoners, was that Schenectady had been the target all along. LIR, 158–62.
90 ANOM, C11A 11: 5-40, Monseignat, “Relation … [1690-1691]”; La Potherie, Histoire, 3: 67–8; Charlevoix, Histoire, 3: 65.
91 Some twenty-five to fifty inhabitants of Schenectady survived, whether because they were spared or absent at the time of the attack. On the fate of the colonists, see DHSNY 1: 301–6; 2: 199–202; Whitmore, ed., Andros Tracts, 3: 114–18; Burke, Mohawk Frontier, 109–10. On the sparing of the Mohawks, see NYCD 9: 468; JRAD 64: 61.
92 ANOM, C11A 11: 41–79, Monseignat, “Relation … [1690-1691]”; NYCD 3: 700, 708, 717. See also the deposition of three French prisoners, LIR 158–62, and Whitmore, ed., Andros Tracts, 3: 116
93 ANOM, C11A 11: 5–40, Monseignat, “Relation … [1689-1690]”; Sainsbury et al., eds., CSPC 13: 240; Newberry Library, Ayer MS 965, “A trew relation given by Robart Wattson”; Morrison, Embattled Northeast, 124–5.
94 ANOM, C11A 11: 19, Monseignat, “Relation … [1689-1690]”; La Potherie, Histoire, 1: 347–8; Catalogne, Recueil, 47–8; Charlevoix, Histoire, 3: 69–72.
95 ANOM, C11A 11: 252–260v, Champigny to the Minister, 10 May 1691; ANOM, C11A 11: 41-79v, Monseignat, “Relation … [1690–1691].”
CHAPTER SEVEN
1 Thwaites, JRAD 60: 133–5, 233; 62: 258; DHSM 6: 118–19.
2 Brouillan to the Minister, 1 June 1703, in Blanchet et al., eds., CMNF 2: 404. On linguistic and riverine perspectives on ethnicity, see Bourque, “Ethnicity”; and Baker, “Finding the Almouchiquois.”
3 On King Philip’s War, see Drake, King Philip’s War; Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk; Lepore, Name of War. On the impact of the war on the Abenakis, more specifically, see Calloway, Western Abenakis, 76–89, and “Wanalancet and Kancagamus”; Siebert, “First Maine Indian War,” 137–56; Morrison, “Tricentennial Too,” 208–12; Bourque, “Ethnicity,” 266–7; Miller, “Abenakis and Colonists,” 60–115; Bilodeau, “Economy of War,” 36–85. On the Algonquian or Abenaki diaspora, see Calloway, Western Abenakis, 6; Haefeli and Sweeney, “Wattanummon’s World”; Sevigny, Abenaquis, 117–67; Bourque, “Ethnicity,” 257–84; Day, Identity of Saint Francis Indians, 16–21.
4 JRAD 60: 134, 232. On the baseless suggestion that the Pennacooks were the first Abenakis to settle at Sillery, cf. Sévigny, Abénaquis, 124–6; Day, Identity of Saint Francis Indians, 17–18, 21; Stewart-Smith, “Pennacook Indians,” 195–215; Daly, “No Middle Ground,” 126–8.
5 JRAD 60: 133–5, 233 (quote); 62: 258.
6 Saint-Vallier, Estat présent, 68.
7 Bourque, Twelve Thousand Years, 86–9, 107–8, 269–73; Haviland and Power, Original Vermonters, 158–9; Ghere, “Abenaki Factionalism,” 38–71.
8 Snow, “Late Prehistory,” and “Eastern Abenaki”; and Day, “Western Abenaki,” 58–88, 137–59, 198–212; Speck, “Eastern Algonkian Wabanaki Confederacy,” 492–508; Walker, “Wabanaki Confederacy,” 100–39.
9 Champlain, Works, 1: 103, 109, 298, 320; 5: 313–16; 6: 43–5; JRAD 12: 186–8; 20: 116; 28: 214, 228; 29: 66–8; Sévigny, Abénaquis, 64–6; Savoie and Tanguay, “Nœud de l’ancienne amitié,” 30–2.
10 JRAD 21: 116.
11 Ibid., 21: 66–70; 25: 110–18, 152.
12 Ibid., 23: 282; 24: 58–64, 158–60, 182–4; 25: 116–20, 152, 174–8; 28: 202–4, 214; 29: 66–70; 30: 178–82, 194; 31: 182–206; 36: 82–8, 128; 37: 260; Druillettes Journal, and “Rapport.” On Gabriel Druillettes, see Lucien Campeau’s entry in DCB 1: 281–2.
13 JRAD 24: 183–5; 27: 79, 245; 28: 169–71, 203–5, 277.
14 Ibid., 36: 101–5, 129, 139–41; 38: 173–5; 40: 195–209; Druillettes, Journal, and “Rapport.”
15 On the Sokoki and Loups in the Saint Lawrence valley during the late 1650s and 1660s, see Day, Identity of Saint Francis Indians, 13–18; Thomas, “Maelstrom of Change,” 203–60. On the violent end of the Sokoki-Iroquois truce in 1663, see Brodhead et al., eds., NYCD 3: 68; 13: 191–2, 297–8, 308–9, 355–6; Day, “Ouragie War.” There is no evidence of a “village” there ca. 1669. Cf. Day, Identity of Saint Francis Indians, 13.
16 La Potherie, Histoire, 1: 307–9. See also, ANOM, C11A 33: 210-36, “Mémoire du Sr. de Catalogne sur les Seigneuries et habitations des gouvernements de Québec, Montréal et Trois-Rivières,” 1712; Charlevoix, Histoire, 3: 102–13.
17 Charland, Histoire des Abénakis, 15–19; BANQ-TR, TL3, S11, P1029, Petition of Jean Crevier regarding Jean dit Petit-Jean, 23 March 1669; BANQ-Q, notary Antoine Adhémar, Contract between René Fort dit Laprairie and Simon Meunier, 17 January 1672; BANQ-Q, notary Bénigne Basset, Cession by Pierre Boucher and Jeanne Crevier, 20 and 23 July 1676
18 JRAD 60: 130; Campeau, ed., MNF 9: 389n39; JRAD 52: 60–8, 222–6; 53: 60; 60: 250; 62: 32, 52; Crespieul, Pretiosa Mors; Hébert, Registre de Sillery, 31–2, 78, 104, 223, 248–9, 288, 293; Bigot, Relation de ce qui s’est passé, 13–15.
19 JRAD 62: 259–61; Saint-Vallier, Estat présent, 68. See also Hubbard, History of Indian Wars, 2: 204.
20 In contrast to Iroquoian adoption practices, those of the northeastern Algonquians have not attracted much scholarly attention. On adoption among the Abenakis, see Nash, “Abiding Frontier,” 280–2.
21 On Abenaki leadership, see Morrison, “Dawnland Directors,” 1–19; Nash, “Abiding Frontier,” 102–3.
22 JRAD 60: 239–43. The context suggests that the unnamed captain alluded to in an earlier report from Sillery was none other than Pirrouaki. See ibid., 60: 137. See also Hébert, Registre de Sillery, 230; Bigot, Relation de ce qui s’est passé, 13–16. For their likely confirmation (under their new names Tek8erimat and Etek8erimansk8e) in 1682, see Registre de Sillery, 293.
23 JRAD 60: 131–5, 233.
24 “Mémoire touschant les sauvages abenaquis de Sillery,” 1679, in CMNF 1: 272.
25 See Francis Card’s declaration in DHSM 6: 159-61 (cf. Hubbard, History, 2: 204). For other claims of French assistance, see CMHS, 1st ser. 6: 205; ibid., 4th ser. 6: 307. On the necessity of powder for hunting and Canada as a source of powder, see also DHSM 6: 119; Hubbard, History, 2: 147, 152, 156, 210.
26 JRAD 60: 135. Many New Englanders nevertheless believed that the French were inciting and supplying the Abenakis. See for example DHSM 6: 150.
27 Quentin Stockwell in Haefeli and Sweeney, Captive Histories, 45.
28 For evidence of the distribution of supplies, see JRAD 60: 136–7. For evidence of the shortages and epidemic, see ibid., 60: 237–39.
29 Margry, Découvertes et établissements, 1: 525–6, 532–4, 538–44, 593–4, 600; 2: 139–40, 148–9, 153–4. Regarding the westward migration of Eastern Algonquians (Mahicans, Munsees) towards the Great Lakes in the second half of the 1670s, see Brasser, Riding on the Frontier’s Crest, 21–4, 66–7.
30 JRAD 62: 43.
31 Ibid., 60: 239.
32 Day, Identity of Saint Francis Indians, 21; Calloway, Western Abenakis, 84–5; Gookin, “Historical account,” 520–1; Hubbard, History, 2: 239–40; CMHS, 1st ser. 3: 179. On the raids, see also Stockwell’s accounts in Haefeli and Sweeney, Captive Histories, 35–48 (alternatively, in Vaughan and Clark, Puritans Among Indians, 79–89; and Wells and Wells, History of Hatfield, 88–98).
33 JRAD 63: 207–9, 213–15; NYCD 9: 795; Gookin, “Historical account,” 519–20; Hubbard, History of In
dian Wars, 2: 226–9, 233; Belknap, History, 1: 152–4. On Mohawk raiding, see DHSM 6: 166–7; Gookin, “Historical account,” 520–1; CMHS, 1st ser. 3: 180–1, 185. The claim that the Pennacooks, specifically, were the first Abenakis to settle at Sillery is impossible to substantiate. Cf. Sévigny, Abénaquis, 124–6; Day, Identity of Saint Francis Indians, 17–18, 21; Calloway, “Wanalancet and Kancagamus,” 276, and Western Abenakis, 81–2, 84–5; Haefeli and Sweeney, “Wattanummon’s World,” 212–24; Stewart-Smith, “Pennacook Indians,” 196–8.
34 JRAD 62: 25, 37, 45–7, 259–61; Saint-Vallier, Estat présent, 68–9. For references to Abenakis from Acadia receiving instruction from Christians from Sillery, see JRAD 63: 47.
35 JRAD 62: 25, 37, 45–7, 109. See also Brouillan to the Minister, 1 June 1703, in CMNF 2: 404.
36 BANQ-Q, TP1, S36, Series 36, 1960-01-347/16, “Acte de concession de terres du Sault de la Chaudière,” 1 July 1683.
37 “Mémoire touschant les sauvages abenaquis de Sillery,” 1679, in CMNF 1: 272–3.
38 BANQ-Q, TP1, S36, Series 36, 1960-01-347/16, “Acte de concession de terres du Sault de la Chaudière,” 1 July 1683; JRAD 62: 265–7; Boily, “Terres amérindiennes,” 183–6. On Msakkikkan (Msakik8n, Mesakkikkan, Mesakkicans, Eteskan, Méchatigan, Mésakégant, Asakigant, Méchakiganne, Kégakkan, Satigan, Satigant, Santigan, Sartigan), see also Campeau, “Msakkikkan”; Charland, “Définition et reconstitution,” 133–4; Hébert, Registre de Sillery, 43, 270, 273, 274, 278, 285.
39 Hébert, Registre de Sillery, 43, 270, 273, 274, 278.
40 JRAD 63: 30; Bigot, Copie d’une lettre, 7-8; Clair, “Du décor rêvé,” 443–6, 463–6.
41 JRAD 62: 23–32, 44–6, 50, 142; Bigot, Copie d’une lettre, 9. For references to Marguerite’s relatives, see Hébert, Registre de Sillery, 60, 109, 243, 247, 249, 252, 257, 263, 268, 269, 272, 274, 275, 281, 286, 293. For a discussion of female leadership among the Abenakis, see Nash, Abiding Frontier, chap. 3; Little, Many Captivities, 68–78.
42 JRAD 62: 116–20; Clair, “Du décor rêvé,” 389–90.
43 Merlet, Histoire des relations, 37; Clair, “Du décor rêvé,” 437–57.
44 On the naming of the mission, see JRAD 63: 27–9; Bigot, Copie d’une lettre. On the circulation and arrivals, JRAD 63: 51–3.
45 JRAD 63: 82–4.
46 Ibid., 63: 52–4; Bigot, Relation de ce qui s’est passé, 17; ANOM, G1, 461: 1, 3–3v, “Recensement général du Canada, tableau récapitulatif,” 1685.
47 Sébastien Rasle to his brother, 12 October 1723, in Lettres édifiantes 23 (1738), 200–1, 209. The names “néssa8akamíghé” for “village de S. Fran[çois] de Sales” and “8néssa8akamighé8iak” for its inhabitants (“ses hommes”) are provided by Rasles, Dictionary of Abnaki Language, 458, 542. Cf. Merlet, Histoire des relations, 23–4. The etymology is provided by Trumbull, who assumed that this name referred to the relocation of the mission from the Chaudière to the Saint François River in 1700, but Rasles’s indication that he began his dictionary in 1691 suggests otherwise. See Composition of Indian Geographical Names, 22. Vetromile provides the alternative but less likely meaning of “where the river is barricaded with osier to fish, or where the fish is dried by smoke,” in Abnakis, 24. This name does not appear in the mission’s sacramental registers, which contain only variations of the name Msakkikkan during the years 1683–86, and its Latin equivalent of “In Missione Campestri” once in 1688, but the lack of such registers makes it impossible to chart the toponymical shift more precisely. Hébert, Registre de Sillery, 43, 270, 273, 274, 278.
48 JRAD 60: 135.
49 Ibid., 63: 144.
50 ANOM, C11A 6: 181, De Meulles to the Minister, 4 November 1683.
51 JRAD 63: 54–64.
52 Ibid., 60: 25–7, 111; 63: 63, 77. Etienne Nekoutneant’s (Neketucant, Neghetnanan, Neketnant, Neketneant, Nekedneant, Neketnehante, Nek8tneant, Kenetneant) given name is occasionally Latinized as Stephanus in the Sillery register. He had arrived at Sillery in 1680 and received baptism the following year. He and his wife, Agathe Nek8t8-sk8e8it (Nek8t8sk8e8it, Nek88sk8e8it, or Neketneantsk8e), were baptized on 24 May 1681; four of their children were baptized in 1680 and 1682. See Hébert, Registre de Sillery, 60, 109, 243, 247, 249, 252, 257, 263, 268, 269, 272, 274, 275, 281, 286, 293.
53 Sainsbury et al., eds., CSPC 11: 634–5. On the tension in Acadia in 1684–85, see Miller, “Abenakis and Colonists,” 131–9.
54 JRAD 63: 62–5. See also ANOM, C11A 6: 268v, La Barre to Dongan, 24 July 1684; ANOM, C11A 6: 309v, “Mémoire de La Barre concernant son expédition au Lac Ontario,” 1 October 1684. On Saint-Castin, see Georges Cerbelaud Salagnac’s entry in DCB 2: 4–7.
55 CMNF 1: 410; Baugy, Journal, 86–7; Belmont, Histoire du Canada, 20; ANOM, C11A 9: 121–31, “Memoire de l’Estat present des Affaires de Canada sur la guerre des Iroquois,” 27 October 1687. While Salagnac’s entry in the DCB claims that Saint-Castin took part in the campaign of 1687, he was at Petagouet throughout the summer. See CMNF 1: 399–401 403; cf. Georges Cerbelaud Salagnac, “Abbadie de Saint-Castin, Jean-Vincent,” DCB 2: 4–7.
56 JRAD 63: 63–7. The muster held at Cataraqui indicates that there were “Abnakis chresiens de Sillery et autres endroits qu’on n’a pas pû ramasser n’en ayant eu le temps, soixante cinq bons hom[m]es,” as well as seventy-two Algonquins, commanded by Hertel and Grand Pré. ANOM, C11A 6: 267, “Revue faite au fort Frontenac le 17 aoust 1684 des Sauvages qui nous ont suivis pour la guerre,” 17 August 1684.
57 For the frustration of the Great Lakes allies, see ANOM, C11A 6: 311v–312, “Mémoire de La Barre concernant son expédition au Lac Ontario,” 1 October 1684; Lahontan, Oeuvres, 302.
58 ANOM, C11A 6: 346v–347, La Barre to Louis XIV, 13 November 1684; Lahontan, Oeuvres, 298–9. On the illness among the Abenakis in particular, see JRAD 63: 73, 81–99; Bigot, Relation de ce qui s’est passé, 5–6. On the disease affecting the Sokokis near the Saint François River, see Maurault, Histoire des Abénaquis, 273. On the prevalence of malaria in the wetlands around Cataraqui, see Fallis, “Malaria.”
59 JRAD 63: 87–93; Bigot, Relation de ce qui s’est passé, 17.
60 Bigot, Relation de ce qui s’est passé, 13–15; PDRH, Répertoire des actes d’état civil, 1621–1799, Record #30553, Burial of Michel Terourimah [sic], 23 January 1685. (http://www.genealogie.umontreal.ca)
61 Provost, Les Abénaquis (1948), 33–4; Boily, “Terres amérindiennes,” 186; “Mémoire touschant les sauvages abenaquis de Sillery,” 1679, in CMNF 1: 272–3.
62 Hébert, Registre de Sillery, 23–5; ANOM, G1, 461: 1, 3–3v, Recensement général du Canada, tableau récapitulatif,” 1685 and 1688.
63 JRAD 62: 24–52.
64 Ibid., 63: 70.
65 ANOM, G1, 461: 3–4.
66 NYCD 13: 531–2.
67 Leder, ed., LIR, 77–9, 95–6; NYCD 4: 576; Day, Identity of Saint Francis Indians, 22–3. This Sadochquis or Sadocquis appears to be the same man as the “Shattoockquis alias Shadookis” who in 1665 signed a deed for land in what is now Brookfield, New Hampshire, along with a Pocumtuck sachem. See Bruchac, “Abenaki Connections,” 262–78.
68 NYSA, A1894 25:121, Instructions to Thomas Delavall, 30 May 1676; NYSA, A1895 3(2): 10, Council Minute, 30 May 1676; NYSA, A1894 28: 186, Council Meeting, 20 August 1678; Wraxall, Abridgement, 101–2. On Schagticoke, see Midtrod, “So Great a Correspondence,” 253-326; Calloway, Western Abenakis, 82–3; Starna, From Homeland, 148–70.
69 LIR, 95–6.
70 Ibid.
71 Ibid., 77–9, 82, 95–6; NYCD 4: 576; Belknap, History, 1: 182, 225–7; Calloway, “Wanalancet and Kancagamus,” 277–80.
72 ANOM, C11A 9: 32–8, Champigny to the Minister, 16 July 1687; Baugy (“bande d’Arhetil” [sic: Hertel]), Journal, 74–5, 86–7; Belmont, Histoire du Canada, 20; JRAD 63: 269; ANOM, C11A 9: 118, Denonville, “Mémoire du Voyage Pour l’Entreprise de M. le Marquis de Denonville contre les Sonnontouans,” 1687.
73 NYCD 3: 436–7.
On the commercial expeditions led by Johannes Oseboom and Patrick Magregory, see Armour, “Merchants of Albany,” 1–22.
74 NYCD 3: 482. The Abenakis are termed “Onnagonque Indians” in the English record. See also Day, Identity of Saint Francis Indians, 30; Calloway, “Wanalancet and Kancagamus,” 281.
75 NYCD 3: 482; Day, Identity of Saint Francis Indians, 30; Calloway, “Wanalancet and Kancagamus,” 281.
76 See BNF, 13516, f. 37v, Belmont, “Recueil”; ANOM, C11A 10: 61-62v, Denonville to Dongan, 20 August 1688.
77 Ibid.
78 NYCD 3: 561–5, 569–70; ANOM, C11A 10: 127-9, Champigny to the Minister, 19 October 1688. The circumstances of Wampolack’s raid have been examined by Calloway, Western Abenakis, 92–3; and Lozier, “Lever des chevelures,” 516–18.
79 Ibid. On the Anglo-American reaction, see also Whitmore, ed., Andros Tracts, 2: 207; NYCD 3: 550–70.
80 Morrison, Embattled Northeast, 113–17; DHSM 6: 250–500; Bouton, Documents and Records, 2: 46–55; NYCD 3: 550–4, 561–2.
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