How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower

by Adrian Goldsworthy

  Notes

  Preface

  i. J. Murray (ed.), The Autobiographies ofEdward Gibbon (1896), p. 302-

  z. The same case is also made in the book that accompanies the series, T. Jones & A. Ereira, Terry Jones' Barbarians (2oo6); for an example of Robert Harris comparing Ancient Rome to modern America, see his article on the Pirate War of 68 BC1 published in various papers, and online at http://www.nytimes.com/2oo6/09/3o/opinion/3oharris.html.

  3. A marvellous example of the best approach to doing this sort of analysis is C. Murphy, Are We Rome? The Fall of an Empire and the Fate ofAmerica (2007). It is a very witty book - I am still rather taken with idea of Tacitus writing for The Economist - and also a very perceptive and thought-provoking study by someone who has done his research well.

  4. For `shock and awe', see D. Mattingly, An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire, 54 BC -AD 409 (2oo6), p. 123. Septimius Severus' campaign in Caledonia in the early third century AD is dubbed the `war on terror' on p. 124. More direct linking of Roman imperialism with the current war in Iraq may be found in N. Faulkner, The Decline and Fall ofRoman Britain (2nd edn, 2004), pp. 1516. I have not yet seen the same author's Rome: The Empire of Eagles, 753 BC AD 476(2008), but this seems to expand on similar themes to those explored in his study of Roman Britain.

  Introduction - The Big Question

  1. E. Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. 3, (1781), ch. 38. The quotation appears on p. 509 of Vol. 2 of the Penguin Classics edition (1995). There have been many different editions of Gibbon and the page numbering varies greatly.

  z. See R. Porter, Gibbon (1988), pp. 101, 161.

  3. In general, see P. Brandon, The Decline and Fall of the British Empire (2007)4. C. Freeman, The Closing of the Western Mind: The Rise of Faith and the Fall of Reason (2002).

  5. For more detailed discussion, see Porter (1988), pp. 67-93.

  6. A. Dermandt, Der Falls Roms: Die Auflo'sung der Ro'mischen Reiches im Urteil der Nachwelt (1984).

  7. A. Piganiol, L'Empire chretien (325-3,95) (1947), p• 222; for good general discussions of the various theories about Rome's fall, see B. Ward-Perkins, The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization (2005), pp. i-io, 169-183, and P. Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History (2oo5), pp. xi xvi, 431459.

  8. E.g., F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World (and edn, 1992) or B. Isaac, The Limits of Empire (2nd edn, 1992).

  9. The single most influential work in this field was clearly P. Brown, The Making of Late Antiquity (1978).

  ,o. P. Barnwell, Emperor, Prefects and Kings: The Roman West, 3p5-565 (1992), p. 174.

  it. P. Heather, `The Fall of the Roman Empire', in Oxford Historian, 4 (May zoo6), pp. 17-20, quotes from pp. 18 & 19.

  1z. Fora discussion of the real threat posed by the tribal peoples of Europe to the Roman Empire, see G. Halsall, Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West 376-568 (2007)-

  13. A. H. M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284602, Vol. 2 (1964), p. 1033-

  14. E. Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Vol , (1776), ch. 6, fn. 13-14.

  i-The Kingdom of Gold

  i. Marcus Aurelius, Meditations 5. 23, taken from the Wordsworth Classics of World Literature Series, trans. R. Hard (1997), p. 41.

  z. A. Birley, Marcus Aurelius (rev. edn. 1987) is the most recent and thorough biography; quotations from Meditations 7. 36, 8. 5; on loss of children, see Fronto, Epistulae ad Marcum Caesarem 4. 11, 5. 19 (34), 5. 45 (6o), Marcus Aurelius, Meditations 1. 8, 8. 49, 9. 40, 10. 34, 11. 34, and Birley (1987), pp. ,o6- ,o8.

  3. SHA, Hadrian 16. 7; for an innovative analysis of Mediterranean history touching on many of the issues discussed in this chapter, see P. Holden & N. Purcell, The Corrupting Sea: A Study ofMediterranean History (zooo).

  4. RIB 1o65, cf. RIB 1171-

  5. A well-illustrated collection of mummy portraits can be found in the British Museum exhibition catalogue, S. Walker & M. Bierbrier, Ancient Faces: Mummy Portraits from Roman Egypt (1997)-

  6. Tacitus, Agricola 30; Plutarch, Caesar 15, with discussion in A. Goldsworthy, Caesar (2006), p. 335; for a discussion of rebellions, see S. Dyson, `Native Revolt Patterns in the Roman Empire', Aufstieg and Niedergang der ro'mischen Welt, II. 3, P.P. 38-175-

  7. Acts 21: 39; Pliny, Epistulae 10.37 & 39; for a discussion of civic life and aristocratic patronage, see P Veyne, Bread and Circuses (1990).

  8. For some general discussion, see G. Woolf, `Roman Peace', in J. Rich & G. Shipley, War and Society in the Roman World (1993), pp. 171-194.

  9. Aelius Aristides, Roman Oration 79-84.

  10. SHA, Hadrian 15. 13; for a detailed survey of the creation of the Principate, see R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939).

  ii. Strabo, Geog. 3. 5. 3 (C 169), and R. MacMullen, Roman Social Relations (1974), pp. 89, 183 n. I.

  iz. See MacMullen (1974), pp. 90-91.

  13. Hadrian and hunting, see S HA, Hadrian 26. 3.

  14. SHA, Hadrian 15. 11-13; for a readily accessible and broad-ranging picture of Hadrian and this period, see D. Danzinger & N. Purcell, Hadrian's Empire (2005); for a discussion of the law and social status, see P. Garnsey, Social Status and Legal Privilege in the Roman Empire (1970), esp. pp. 221-223 on the terms honestiores, humiliores and their synonyms.

  15. A good introduction to the question of demography is B. Frier, `Roman Demography', in D. Potter & D. Mattingly (eds.), Life, Death and Entertainment in the Roman Empire (1999), pp. 95-109.; see also K. Beloch, Die Bevolkerung de Griechisch-romischen Welt (1886), R. Bagnall & B. Frier, The Demography of Roman Egypt (1994), T. Parkin, Demography and Roman Society (1992), W. Scheidel, Measuring Sex, Age, and Death in the Roman Empire: Explorations in Ancient Demography (1996), and D. Rathbone, `Villages, Land and Population in Graeco-Roman Egypt', Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society, 36 (1990), pp. 103-1421-

  16. See C. Edwards & G -.-Woolf (eds.), Rome the Cosmopolis (2003), esp. W. Scheidel, `Germs for Rome', pp. 158-176 for a very bleak picture of living conditions; Suetonius, Vespasian 5.

  17- S. Pomeroy, `Coprynyms and the Exposure of Infants in Egypt', in A. Cameron & A. Kuhrt (eds.), Images of Women in Antiquity (1983), pp. 207-222, and also Parkin (1992), pp. 91-133.

  18. On the role of slaves and freedmen in business, see W. Zwalve, `Callistus' Case: Some legal aspects of Roman Business Activities', in L. de Blois & J. Rich (eds.), The Transformation of Economic Life under the Roman Empire (zooz), pp. 116-127.

  19. See, for example, the discussion of the language in poetry written by centurions in J. Adams, `The poets of Bu Njem: Language, Culture and the Centurionate', JRS, 89 (1999), pp. 109-134, esp. 125-134; see also Horace, Sat. 1. 6. 72-74, and Suetonius, Gramm. 24. 1.

  20. A. Bowman & J. Thomas (eds.), The Vindolanda Tablets (Tabulae Vindolandenses II) (1994), 250.

  21. Pliny, Epistulae 2. 13. 1-3 (Penguin translation); for patronage in general, see P. Saller, Personal Patronage under the Early Empire (1982).

  22. See K. Greene, The Archaeology of the Roman Economy (1986), and 'Technology and Innovation in Context', Journal ofRoman Archaeology, 7 (1994), pp. 22-33, and T. Lewit, Agricultural Production in the Roman Economy (1991); see also de Blois & Rich (2002), passim, and esp. W. Jongman, `The Roman Economy: From Cities to Empire', pp. 28-47, and J. Drinkwater, `Prologue and Epilogue: The Socio-Economic Effect of Rome's Arrival In and Departure From Gaul', pp. 128-140, and P. Termin, A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire', JRS, 91 (2001), pp. 169-18r; on currency, see C. Howgego, `Coin Circulation and the Integration of the Roman Economy, Journal of Roman Archaeology, 7 (1994), pp. 5-21.

  23. On Mills, see Greene (1986), Holden & Purcell (2000), pp. 255-257, A. Wilson, `Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy, JRS, 92 (2002), pp. 132, and P. Leveau, `The Barbegal Water Mill and its Environment', Journal of Roman Archaeology, 9 (1996), pp. 137-153-

  24. See A. Wilson, `Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy', in JRS, 92 (zooz), pp. 1-32, esp
. 17-29-

  Z5. D. Mattingly, `Impact Beyond Empire: Rome and the Garamantes of the Sahara', in Blois & Rich (2002), pp. 184-203, and M. Liverani, `The Garamantes: A Fresh Approach', Libyan Studies, 31 (2000), pp. 17+-

  z6. Reweaving silk, Pliny, NH6. 20 (54); for discussion, see J. Ferguson, `China and Rome', Aufstieg and Niedergang der Romischen Welt, II. 9. 2, pp. 581-603, and G. Young, Rome's Eastern Trade (2oo1), esp. pp. 27-89, 187-zoo.

  27. Pliny, NH14. 2 (Penguin translation, J. Healy).

  z8. E. Gibbon, The Decline andFall ofthe Roman Empire, Vol. 1 (1776) (Penguin Classics edn, 1995), p. 103; this passage seems to have been inspired by very similar comments made by William Robertson some years before, see R. Porter, Gibbon (1988), pp. 135-136.

  29. See Birley (1987), pp. 121-131, 140-152, and J. Gilliam, `The Plague Under Marcus Aurelius', American Journal of Philology, 82 (1961), pp. 225-251, Rathbone (1990), pp. 114-119, R. Duncan-Jones, `The Impact of the Antonine Plague', Journal of Roman Archaeology, 9 (1996), pp. 108-136, Bagnall & Frier (1994), PP-.1-73-17-8-

  30. Fora discussion of the difficulty in reconstructing the course of these campaigns, see Birley (1987), pp. 249-2,55; for some of the archaeological evidence, see J. Ratjar, `Die Legionen Mark Aurels im Vormarschi in J. Oexle (ed.), Aus der Luft - Bilder unserer Geschichte (1997), pp. 59-68.

  31. Dio 72. 36. 4 (Loeb translation).

  z-The Secret of Empire

  1. Tacitus, Histories 1. 4.

  2. Commodus' boast that he was `born to the imperial purple', Herodian 1. 5. 5-6; Trajan's fondness for boys, Dio 68. 7. 4, who notes that this harmed no one; Hadrian's famous affair with Antinous, Dio 69.11.3-4, S HA, Hadrian 14. 5-8.

  3. Apart from Gladiator (2000), the most notable screen depiction of Commodus was in the Fall of the Roman Empire (1964); on the role of the emperor, see F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, 31 BC-AD 337 (1977); Hadrian and the petitioner, Dio 69. 6. 3; Marcus Aurelius and justice, Dio 72. 6. 1-2, S HA, Marcus Antoninus 24. 1-3

  4. For summaries and discussions of Commodus' reign, seeA. Birley, Septimius Severus: the African Emperor (1988), pp. 57-62,78-88, and D. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180 395 (2,004), PP. 85-93.

  5. Dio 73 21. 1-2 (Loeb translation).

  6. For the argument that some of Commodus' propaganda was effective, see O. Hekster, Commodus: An emperor at the crossroads (2oo2).

  7. Dio 73. 22. 1-6, Herodian 1. 16. 1-17. 12, SHA, Commodus 17. 1-2.

  8. Dio 74. I. 1-5, Herodian 2. I. 1-3. II, S HA, Commodus 18. 1-20. 5, Pertinax 4. 5-5. 6, and discussion in Birley (1988), pp. 88-90, who argues that Pertinax was involved in the conspiracy.

  9. Dio 74. 3. 1-2. 6, 5. 1-9. 1, Herodian 2. 4. 1-5. 1, SHA, Pertinax 1. 1-4. 4' 5. 7-13. 8, Birley (1988), pp. 63-67, 91-94; for the career of Valerius Maximianus, see L'Annee epigraphique (1956), 124.

  io. Dio 74. 9. 2-IO. 3, Herodian 2. 5. 1-5-9, SHA, Pertinaxio. 8-11. 13.

  11. Dio 74. 11. 1-6, Herodian 6. 1-14, SHA, Didius Julianus 2. 4-7, with Birley (1988), pp. 95-96, Potter (2004), pp.96-98, CAH XII, p. 2; by the late third century donatives may have been the same for all ranks, see R. Duncan-Jones, `Pay and Numbers in Diocletian's Army, Chiron, 8 (1978), pp. 541-56o, but this is unlikely to have been true in earlier periods.

  12. Dio 74. 12. 1-14. 2, S HA, Didius julianus 3. 1-4. 9.

  13. For good overviews of the Roman army, see G. Webster, The Roman Imperial Army (1985: reprint with updated bibliography, 1998), Y. Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army (1994), H. Parker, The Roman Legions (1928), and A. Goldsworthy, The Complete Roman Army (2003); on the fiumentarii, see N. Austin & B. Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle ofAdrianople (1995), esp. 136-137, 150-154; the classic study of the army and politics is J. Campbell, The Emperor and the Roman Army (1984).

  14. On conditions in the army, see R. Davies, Service in the Roman Army (1989), G. Watson, The Roman Soldier (1969), and R. Alston, Soldier and Society in Roman Egypt (1995); see Davies (1989), pp. 229-230 for the letters from soldiers in hospital, Tabulae Vindolandenses 11154, for a cohort strength report listing men sick in hospital, and R. Fink, Roman Military Records on Papyrus (1971) No. 63, for a return listing men killed by bandits and drowned.

  15. On the question of marriage, see J. Campbell, `The Marriage of Soldiers Under the Empire', JRS, 68 (1978), pp. 153-166, and Alston (1995), pp. 54-59.

  16. Low quality of recruits, Tacitus, Annals 4. 4, for a discussion, see A. Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War, 100 B C-AD 200 (1996), pp. 28-30, and Davies (1989), pp. 3-30.

  17. Unit pride, see R. MacMullen, `The Legion as Sociey, Historia, 33 (1984), PP. 440-456, and Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 252-257•

  18. For the career patterns of Roman officers, see many of the articles in E. Birley, The Roman Army (1988), H. Devijver, The Equestrian Officers of the Roman Army, 2 vols. (1989 & 1992), D. Breeze & B. Dobson, Roman Officers and Frontiers (1993), and R. P. Saller, `Promotion and Patronage in Equestrian Careers', JRS, 70 (1980), pp. 44-63.

  19. Goldsworthy (1996), pp. 13-15, 30-321-

  20. Campbell (1984), esp. pp. io6-1o9, argues that the influence of the centurions was not in itself enough to control the soldiers.

  2,1. Dio 74. 14. 3-17. 6, 75. I. 1-2. I, Herodian 2. II. 7-14. 4, SHA, Didius julianus 6. 1-8. 10, Severus 5. 1-6.9, with Birley (1988), pp. 97-105, and Potter (2,004), pp. 101-103.

  22. Dio 76. 6. 1 for the claim that there were 15o,ooo men on each side at Lugdunum; for narrative and analysis of the civil war, see Birley (1988), pp. ,o8- 128.

  23. Birley (1988), pp. 8-56; the sixth-century source claiming he was darkskinned is John Malalas, Chronicle 12. 18 (291). This is available in translation by E. Jeffreys, M. Jeffreys, R. Scott et al, The Chronicle of john Malalas: A Translation (1986), see Birley (1988), p. 36.

  24. Dio 76. 7. 1-8. 4; finding a father, Dio 77. 9. 4; on Plautianus, see Birley (1988), pp. 137, 161-164-

  25. On the horse guard that was doubled in size, see M. Speidel, Riding for Caesar: The Roman Emperors'Horse Guard (1994), pp. 56-64.

  26. Problems at Hatra, Dio 76. 11-1-12. 5; the campaigns in Mesopotamia, see Birley (1988), pp. 129-135, with D. Kennedy, `European soldiers and the Severan siege of Hatra', in P. Freeman & D. Kennedy (eds.), The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East (1986), pp. 397-409, and D. Campbell, `What Happened at Hatra? The problems of the Severan Siege Operations', in Freeman & Kennedy (1986), pp. 51-58; on Britain, see Birley (1988), pp. 177-187, M. Todd, Roman Britain (3rd edn, 1999), pp. 144-155.

  27. Dio 77. 15. 2-4, 17. 4, Herodian 3. 14. 1-3, 15. 1-3, SHA, Severus 19. 14.

  3-Imperial Women

  ,. Herodian, History oftheEmpire6.1.1(Whittaker's translation, Loeb edition).

  z. Dio 78. 1. 1-6, Herodian 4. 1. 1-5, 3. 1-9-

  3. Dio 78. 2. 1-6, Herodian 4. 4. 1-3.

  4. Dio 78. 3. 1-3, Herodian 4. 4. 4-5. 7, SHA, Caracalla z. 5-ii, Geta 6. 1-2.

  5. Dio 78. 3. 4, ra-5, Herodian 4. 6. i-5, SHA, Caracalla 3. 2-5. 3, Geta 6. 3-76.

  6. Dio 78. 6. 1a- 2, 10. 1-11. 7, Herodian 4. 7. 1, S HA, Caracalla 4. 9-10, 9. 411; gladiator forced to fight three bouts, Dio 78. 6. 2.

  7. Dio 78. 15. 2-7; important visitors kept waiting, Dio 78. 17. 3-4; for a discussion of Caracalla's style of rule, see D. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay (2004), pp. 140-146, including mention of his visiting shrines, and see also G. Fowden, in CAH2 XII (2005), pp. 545-547; for an example of Caracalla's method of hearing a petition, see SEG XVII. 759 with discussion in W. Williams, `Caracalla and Rhetoricians: A Note of the Cognitio de Gohairienis, Latomus, 33 (1974), pp. 663-667.

  8. Dio 78. 7. 1-9. 1, 13. 1-2, Herodian 4. 7. 4-7; `Rejoice, fellow soldiers ...', Dio 78. 3. 1; Herodian 4. 7. 7 says that he carried legionary standards and speaks of their great weight, but it is interesting that Suetonius emphasised the heaviness of praetorian standards, Suetonius, Gains 43; the lions, Dio 79. 5. 56. 2; for the emperor as fellow soldier, see J. Campbell, The Empe
ror and the Roman Army, 3z BC-AD 235 (1984), pp. 32-59, esp. 51-55, and for discussion of changing styles of command in general, see A. Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome (2003).

  9. On his campaigns, see Dio 78. 13. 3-15. 2, 18. 1-23. 2, 79. 1. 1-3. 5, Herodian 4. 7. 3-7, 8. 6-11. 9, SHA, Caracalla 6. 1-6; for discussion, see Potter (2004), PP. 141-144, F. Millar, The Roman Near East, 32, BC-AD 337 (1993), pp. 142-146, B. Campbell, in CAH2 XII (2,005), PP. 18-19.

  io. Die, 79. 4. 1-6. 5, Herodian 4. 12. 1-13. 8, SHA, Caracalla 6. 5-7. 1.

  it. Dio 79. 11-1-21. 5, Herodian 4. 14. 1-15. 9, 5. 1. 1-2.6, SHA, Macrinus 2. I4, with Potter (2004), PP- 145-147-

  12. Dio 79. 4. 3 (Cary's translation, Loeb edition).

  13. Dio 78-18. 2-3, 79. 4. 2-3, 23. 1-24. 3, Herodian 4. 13. 8; `Ulysses in a dress' (Ulixes stolatus), Suetonius, Gaius 23; quote from Dio 79.4.3 (Cary's translation, Loeb edition); for Julia Domna, see the excellent B. Levick, Julia Domna: Syrian Empress (2007), and also A. Birley, Septimius Severus (1988/1999), passim, esp. 191-192, and in general, G. Turton, The Syrian Princesses: The Women Who Ruled the Roman World (1974); much later sources contain the fictional story of an incestuous relationship between Domna and Caracalla, SHA, Caracalla Io. 1-4, Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 21.

  14. Dio 79. 30. 2-4, Herodian 3. 2-5; for discussion, see Millar (1993), pp. 119120, 145, 300-309, Potter (2004), pp. 148-150.

  15. Dio 79. z8. 2-29. 2, Herodian 5. 3. 6-11, Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus 23; for discussion of army pay, see G. Watson, The Roman Soldier (1969), pp. 9o- 91.

  16. Dio 31. 4-41. 4, Herodian 5. 3. 12-5. 1, SHA, Macrinus 15. 1-z; Millar (1993), pp. 144-147, Potter (2004), pp. 148-152-

  17. Dio 8o. 17. 2, SHA, Elagabalus 4. 1-2, 15. 6, 18. 3.; Agrippina in the Senate, see Tacitus, Annals, 13. 5; for a discussion, see R. Talbert, The Senate of Imperial Rome (1984), p. 162.