Ashoka: The Search for India's Lost Emperor

by Charles R. Allen

  Magas (half-brother of Ptolemy II), 259, 260

  Mahabharata, 7, 31

  Mahabodhi temple at Bodhgaya see Bodhgaya, great temple at

  Mahabun mountain, 230, 231, 233–5, 364, 365

  Mahasthan walled city, 316

  Mahavamsa (’Great Dynastic Chronicle’), 99, 187, 197, 296, 387; Ashoka in, 100–2, 141, 144–52, 164–5, 186, 249, 267–8, 284, 375, 378, 379, 382, 395; Bindusara in, 101, 143–4, 145, 368; Chetiyagiri/Sanchi in, 148, 152, 248; Dipavamsa (Island Chronicle) as early source for, 143, 168, 379; early Buddhist elders and missionaries in, 247, 248, 387; Fox’s purported translation of, 100–2, 104, 105, 141; Turnour’s translation of, 103–4, 105, 141–52, 164–5, 168, 186, 229

  Mahavira, 84, 225, 366–7

  Mahinda (son of Ashoka), 144, 150, 248, 296, 297, 351, 376; Buddhism and, 146, 148–9, 186, 296, 298, 379; mission to Lanka, 148–9, 152, 296, 386

  Mahmud of Ghazni, xii–xiii, 234

  Maisey, Fred, 237, 240–3, 245, 247, 249, 334, 342, 343, 345, 387

  Majumdar, N.G., 340

  Manikyala Tope, 129, 260

  Manjusri-mula-tantra (The Root of the Doctrine of Manjusri), 373

  Manu (son of god Brahma), 34, 37, 308, 369

  mapping of India, 64, 82, 125

  Maratha warlords, 21, 72, 105

  Marco Polo, 37

  Marshall, John (1876-1958), 262, 326, 332–3, 336, 337, 339, 348; The Monuments of Sanchi (with Alfred Foucher), 339–46

  Marshall, John (first British Orientalist), 17–19, 23, 138, 332

  Masson, Charles (James Lewis), 131, 228, 229, 260

  Masulipatam town square, 87–8, 281

  Mathura, holy city of, 111, 188, 197, 205, 277, 298–9, 336, 359, 382, 387

  Matyendranath, yogi, 264

  Mauryan dynasty, xix, 77, 126, 127, 143–5, 299, 300, 326, 336, 338, 353; administrative system, 315, 316, 370–1, 388–9; Brahmanism and, 370, 371, 372–3, 378, 379, 384–5, 391, 396; Brahmi alphabet and, 133; caste system and, 369–70; chronology of, 35–6, 68, 296–8, 366–7; coinage, 262, 285, 371–2; end of, 36, 91, 196, 200, 218, 246–7, 277, 278, 288, 304, 359, 396–7; fine sculpture and, 322–4, 335; founding of, 35, 36, 67, 68, 83, 143, 200, 296, 297, 363; modern scholarly publications on, 309–10; origins of family, 364; peacocks and, 83, 364; succession to Ashoka, 395–6; yakshi fertility goddesses, 318, 322–4; see also Ashoka; Bindusara, King; Chandragupta, King

  Megasthenes, India, 45, 61–2, 64, 65, 176, 273, 320, 369–70, 372

  Mehta, Gita, 355–6

  microliths, 294

  Mieza, school at, 47

  ‘Might of Islam’ mosque, Delhi, 7–8, 10

  Mill, Reverend William, 142

  Minhaj-ud-din (a judge of Ghor), 4

  Minto, Lord, 74

  Mishra, P.K., 358–9

  Mitra, Mrs Debala, 285

  Mitra, Rajendra Lala, 277, 291, 295, 300, 301; The Antiquities of Orissa, 291

  Moggaliputta Tissa, 145, 146, 147, 148, 186, 187, 248, 296, 382

  Mohenjo-Daro excavations (1922), 332

  The Monkey King (Chinese novel), 202, 220

  Moodaliar, Murugesa, 88, 90, 91

  Mookerji, Dr Radhakumud, 347, 387

  mosques: in Delhi, 7–8, 9, 10, 15–16; in Varanasi, 19–20, 21, 22, 125

  Mughal dynasty, xv, 15, 16, 20–1, 32, 40, 74, 138, 232–3

  Muhammad, Prophet, 210

  Muhammad Bakhtiyar, 1–3, 4–5, 7, 81

  Muhammad bin Tughluq, 8

  Muhammad Hasan Nizami, Sadruddin, 2

  Muhammad of Ghor, Sultan, 2, 4

  Mukherjee, B.N., 361

  Mukherji, Babu Purna Chandra, 317, 321–2, 324

  Müller, Max, 249, 295, 310

  Murray, William, 96, 159, 341–2

  Mutasiwo, King, 147

  Mysore, 72, 73, 82, 305–6, 307, 336, 372, 373

  Naga snake cult, 199, 240, 272, 275, 340, 341, 342

  Nalanda, Mahavihara of, xvi, 1, 3–5, 81, 218–19, 254, 400

  Nalanda International University, 400

  Nanda dynasty: Dhana Nanda (also Nandrus, Xandrames or Aggrames), 54, 58, 59, 66, 67, 83, 143, 306, 363–4, 365, 366, 368; overthrow of, 35, 66–7, 68, 83–4, 143, 306–7, 363, 365, 366; usurption of throne, 34–5, 76

  Nath order of ascetics, 264

  nationalism, Indian, xiii, xv, 291, 326, 347–8

  Nearchos (Macedonian admiral), 54, 273, 354

  Nehru, Jawaharlal, 309, 355, 356

  Neil, Robert Alexander, 310

  Nepal, xiii, 182, 186, 197, 216, 288, 292, 294, 322, 399; Buddhism in, 78, 80, 126–8, 127, 186, 216; Capuchin mission to (1715), 22; Hodgson and, 123, 125–8, 138, 184; Lumbini Garden, 312–13; Nigliva Sagar inscription, 310–12, 311, 313, 327, 387; Patan, 126–7, 127, 182; surrender of North Bihar to EICo, 106

  Nigrodha (Ashoka’s nephew), 145, 187, 268, 379

  Nirgranthas (sect), 386

  Nodaris, George, 168

  Norris, Edwin, 228, 229, 230

  North, Frederick, 98

  Nysa, city of, 49

  Oertal, F.O., 333–4, 336

  Old Testament, 37, 250

  Omphis of Taxila, King, 46, 48, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55

  Orientalism, European, xv–xvii, xix, 43, 78, 113, 123–31, 200, 249, 332; in Ceylon, 98–100, 102–4; hostility of local inhabitants, 155–7, 339–40; John Marshall as first Orientalist, 17–19, 23, 138, 332; opposition to Anglicists and evangelicals, 115, 154; Sanskrit and, 23–4, 31–3

  Oxford History of India, 315

  Padmavati (Ashoka’s queen), 192, 298

  Pakse, Rajah, 99

  Pala dynasty, 3

  paleontology, 294–5

  Palibothra or Palimbothra see Pataliputra (capital city of Magadha)

  the Pandavas, 7, 10–11, 17–18

  Pandya (Pida) tribes, 175

  Panguraria MRE site, 349–51, 376

  Panini (grammarian), 363

  Parkham giant, 299, 335, 336

  Parthia, 62–3, 260

  Parvataka, King, 83–4, 366, 367

  Pataliputra (capital city of Magadha, also Palibothra or Palimbothra), 80, 342, 363, 368, 376; archaeological excavations, 317–26, 325; Ashoka seizes power in, 144, 189–91, 377–9; after Ashoka’s death, 395, 396; blinded Kunala returns to, 193–4, 392; Chandragupta’s attack on, 66, 83; Faxian and Xuanzang in, 207–8, 216, 317; geographical location of, 61–2, 64–5; Great Assembly Hall, 325, 326, 386–7; Patna as site of, 64–5, 68, 224, 317–20, 387; Seleukos and, 59, 61; in Taranatha’s History, 197–9; see also Ashokarama (monastic complex)

  Patna, 17, 34, 38, 63, 317–20, 322, 323, 326, 339; Kumrahar village, 319–24, 321, 325; as site of Pataliputra, 64–5, 68, 224, 317–20, 387

  Peithon (Macedonian general), 57, 59, 68

  Peppé, William Claxton, 326–8

  Perdiccas (Macedonian general), 56

  Persepolis, 55, 324

  Persia, 46–7, 50, 51, 55–6, 164, 321, 326, 336; Achaeminids, 46, 324, 354, 363; language and, 10, 24, 31, 133, 376; Sassanid emperors, 209, 211; Seleucid Empire, 57, 58, 59–60, 61, 62–3, 176, 335, 367, 368, 374

  Peterson, Dr Peter, 286–7

  Petissa the Second, King of Lanka, 100–2

  Philippos (Macedonian general), 53, 54, 55, 59, 366

  Pillar Edicts, xi–xii, 186, 388–90, 418–25; in Afghanistan, 338–9; Ashoka revealed as author of, 168–9, 179–80, 249; compared to Rock Edicts, 170–1; condition of those surviving, 352–3; dating of, 268, 296, 298, 381–2, 385; deliberate destruction of, 352, 353, 354, 359, 397; at Deorkothar monastic complex, 358–9; Dharma concept in, xix, 165, 167, 171–5, 176–8, 179–80, 358, 383, 389; Gotihawa, 327; influence of Arthashastra on, 307–8; at Kosambi, 257; Lauriya-Araraj pillar, 106, 140, 292; Lauriya-Nandangarh pillar, 17–18, 18, 38, 138, 139–40, 246; Lumbini pillar, 214–15, 303, 312–13, 326, 387; Nigliva Sagar inscription (Western Nepal), 310–12, 311, 313, 327, 387; Prinsep’s translations of, 159–68; production of, 353–4; Rampurva pillars, 292�
��4; royal highway in North Bihar, 387; at Sanchi, 244–6, 245; sanctity of, 340; at Sarnath, 215, 226, 331, 334; Schism Edicts, 244–5, 257, 334, 352, 382; size of, 353; tally of known Edicts (in 1877), 295–6; transportation of, 295–6, 353

  pillars, monumental: at Allahabad, 16, 71, 85, 109, 137–8, 140, 159, 163, 244, 294; at Bhaskareshvara, 109–10; at Delhi Ridge, 13, 85; seen by della Tomba and Law, 23, 38; at Hisar, 10, 15; John Marshall sees (1670s), 17–18; at Kushinagara, 215; at Sankisa, 207, 213–14, 255–7, 259; Staff of Shiva at Varanasi, 19–20, 21, 22; at Vaishali, 151, 215; Xuanzang and, 213–14, 215, 216, 226, 253, 255, 312–13, 334; see also Lat of Firoz Shah (Delhi); Pillar Edicts (PE 1–7)

  Pindaris (marauding gangs), 105–6

  Piprahwa stupas, 326–30

  Pliny the Elder, 58, 59–60, 61

  Plutarch (Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus), 50, 54, 57, 58

  Polier, Antoine, 40

  Poros, King, 16, 46, 52–3, 54, 56, 57, 365

  Pradhan, D.R., 361

  Pradotya dynasty, 34

  Prinsep, Henry Thoby, 154

  Prinsep, James, 123–5, 129–42, 225, 226, 229, 268, 295, 341; as Asiatic Society Secretary, 130–3, 138, 139, 141–2, 154–5, 159–65; Brahmi No. 1 script and, 138–41, 153, 158–68, 169–78, 179–80; coinage and, 129, 133–4, 135, 137, 161, 163, 201; death of, 123, 180–1, 183, 201; drawings/engravings by, 28, 96, 120, 129, 135, 138, 153; Kharosthi language and, 133, 230; memorial structure (Kolkata), 121–3, 122; mistakes Devanamapiyatissa for Ashoka, 164–8; proto-Sanskrit languages and, 137, 230; reading of Girnar and Dhauli rock inscriptions, 158, 163, 170–8, 282; Sanchi inscriptions and, 153, 158–62, 163, 168, 236, 238; translation of Firoz Shah Lat inscription, 162, 163–8

  Prithvi Narayan Shah of Gorkha, 22

  Ptolemy (Greek geographer), 45, 290

  Ptolemy II Philadelphos, 178, 179, 259, 260

  Ptolemy III, 62, 179

  Ptolemy of Egypt, 49, 62, 178, 368

  Punjab, 15, 21, 53–4, 57, 131, 132, 205, 228–35, 260–2

  Puranas, 28, 76, 80, 141, 142, 200, 221, 238, 306; Ashoka in, xi, 35, 36, 68, 77, 169; Ashoka’s successor in, 395, 396; Bindusara in, 35, 36, 68, 373; Chandragupta in, 35, 36, 67, 68; ‘chronology’/lists of kings in, 33–6, 169, 196, 296

  Puritanism, English, xv

  Purnavarman, King, 218

  Purushpura (modern Peshawar), 204, 212

  Pushpagiri, Great Monastery of, 360

  Pushyamitra, King, 195–6, 200, 246–7, 254, 277, 278, 359, 397

  Queen’s College (Benares), 225, 297

  Qutb-ud-din Aybak, 2, 7–8, 9

  Radhacant, Pandit, 33, 34

  Radhagupta, 189–90, 195, 372, 375, 377, 393, 394

  Raja the Great, King, 218

  Rajagriha, 208, 224

  Rajaguru Sri Subuthi Maha Vihara monastery (Waskaduwa, Sri Lanka), xvii

  Rajgir, town of (’House of Kings’), 80, 151, 224, 342

  Rakshasa Katyayan, 66–7, 369, 372

  Ram Mohan Roy, 73, 130

  Ramagrama relic stupa, 340, 341, 342

  Ramayana, 31, 354

  Ramlochan, Pandit, 32, 33

  Rampurva pillars, 292–4

  Rana, General Sumsher Khadga, 303, 312

  Ranjit Singh, Maharaja, 132, 261

  Rashtrapati Bhavan residence, 294

  Ratna Paula, 163, 166

  religious intolerance, xiii, xiv–xv, xvi, 9, 19–20, 22, 43, 298

  Renaissance, Bengal, 73, 121

  Rennell, Major James, 64–5

  Rhys Davids, Thomas, 310, 330, 346

  Rice, Benjamin Lewis, 305–6

  Rock Edicts, xi–xii, 186, 388, 389, 405–15; in Afghanistan, 338–9; Ashoka revealed as author of, 168–9, 179–80, 249; Bairat-Calcutta Minor Rock Edict, 221–3, 268–9, 352; carved on slabs, 348; compared to Pillar Edicts, 170–1; dating of, 178, 260, 268, 296, 298, 381–2, 383, 385; Dharma concept in, xix, 165, 167, 171–5, 176–8, 179–80, 358, 383, 389; Dhauli Rock Edict, 155–8, 169–71, 174, 177, 201, 232, 258, 266, 268, 282–3, 284, 352, 360; edict sites found since independence, 348–51; elephant images, 157, 157, 231, 232, 257–9, 258, 360, 360, 397; Erragudi RE, 337; influence of Arthashastra on, 307–8; at Jaugada, 279–80, 281, 281–2, 284–5; at Kalsi, 257–9, 258, 260, 266, 268; Khandagiri (Orissa), 108–9, 110, 112–13, 133, 154–5; Mansehra, 262, 364; Maski MRE, 337; Minor Rock Edicts (MRE), 110–11, 266–7, 268–9, 298, 305–6, 336–7, 348, 349–52, 379, 380–1; in Mysore State, 305–6, 336–7; omission of REs 11–13 in Kalinga, 170, 177, 282–3, 348, 416–18; Prinsep’s translations of, 158, 163, 170–8; production of, 353–4; in Punjab, 132; sanctity of, 340; Sannati, 348, 352; Sassaram cave inscription, 268, 269, 351; second tranche of, 383–5; Separate Rock Edicts (SREs 1 and 2) in Kalinga, 170, 282–4, 348, 352, 416–18; Shahbazgarhi inscription, 228–33, 231, 260, 262, 268, 364; at shrine of Rupnath, 264–8, 269, 337, 351; Sopara rock edict, 290; specific references to the Buddha, 223–4; tally of known Edicts (in 1877), 295–6; see also caves; Girnar edict rock

  Rosetta Stone, 250

  Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (RAS), 104, 113–14, 118, 184, 228–30, 282, 288, 330; Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (JRAS), 118, 140, 160, 169, 181, 222, 228, 291

  Royal Society, 25, 26

  Rupnath, shrine of, 264–8, 269, 337, 351

  Russia, 196–7, 200

  Sahni, Dr Daya Ram, 293, 332

  Said, Professor Edward, xv, xvi

  Salomon, Richard, 329

  Samprati, King (Sampadin/Samgata, Ashoka’s grandson), 36, 194, 195, 298, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396

  Samudra (monk), 187, 190–1, 379

  Sanchi (chaitya giri or ‘hill of shrines’): archaeological excavation (1851), 236–49, 334, 382, 387; Ashoka evidence at, 240–2, 241, 244–6, 248, 278, 340–6, 375, 387, 391; Ashokan lion capital at, 245, 245–6, 334, 335, 340; Cunningham and, 236–41, 243, 244, 245, 246–9, 274, 334, 335, 382, 387; destruction of, 397; discovery of, 106–8; Fell’s account of visit to, 140; great stupa at, 96, 237–47, 270, 339, 391; inscriptions at, 153, 158–62, 163, 168, 236, 275, 328, 340, 343; John Marshall’s restoration work, 339; in Mahavamsa (as Chetiyagiri), 148, 152, 248; The Monuments of Sanchi (Foucher and Marshall), 339–46; on-site museum, 336; phased building of, 246–7; Pillar Edicts at, 244–6, 257, 334, 340, 352; Prinsep and, 153, 158–62, 163, 168, 236, 238; reliquaries at, 247–8, 382, 387; sculpture at, 96, 106–8, 158–60, 227, 237, 239–47, 275, 278, 334–6, 340–6, 397–8; toranas (gateways) at, 96, 107–8, 237–43, 247, 339, 340–6, 348, 375, 391, 397–8

  Sandrokoptos, King see Chandragupta, King

  Sangha, Buddhist see Buddhism

  Sanghamitta (daughter of Ashoka), 144, 146, 148, 149, 186, 248, 297, 351, 376, 379

  Sankisa, 206, 206–7, 213–14, 220–1, 255–7, 259

  Sanskrit, xviii, xix, 31–3, 42, 128, 138–40, 286, 363; Boden Chair at Oxford, 129, 249; Buddhist Mahayana tradition, 185–6, 187; close affinities to Latin and Greek, 33, 36–7; grammars and dictionaries, 32, 75–6; Hinduism and, 23–4, 32–3, 348; William Jones and, 32, 33, 65, 75, 101; Mackenzie collection, 110; Mysore Oriental Library collection, 306; Prinsep and, 137, 161, 162, 230

  Sanskrit College in Benares, 44, 225, 297, 337

  Sanskrit College in Calcutta, 75, 310

  Sarmanes, 51–2

  Sarnath complex of ruins, 85–6, 86, 87, 191, 336; Ashokan lion capital at, 331, 334–5, 355, 356; Cunningham’s excavations at, 136–7, 226, 237, 333; ‘Deer Park’ at, 207, 215, 226, 334; human remains at, 44, 125; Oertal discovers main shrine (1904-5), 333–4, 336; Schism pillar Edict at, 244, 352

  Sasanka, King of Bengal, 218, 254, 399

  Satakarni I, King, 238, 247, 397–8

  Satavahana (Andhra) dynasty, 36, 91, 238–9, 247, 288, 304–5, 397–8

  sati (immolation of widows), 115

  Satiyaputra tribes, 175

  sculpture, 235, 291, 335–6, 385; at Amaravati, 87–9, 89–95, 280–1, 304–5, 397–8; at Bharhut
, 251, 270–6, 278, 397–8; at Bodhgaya, 300–1; Didarganj Yakshi, 322–4, 335; at Kumrahar, 320, 321, 322, 323; at Langudi, 360–1; Nirvana statue of the Buddha at Kasia, 294; Parkham giant, 298–9; Rampurva capitals, 292–4; at Sanchi, 96, 106, 107–8, 158, 159, 160, 227, 237, 239–44, 245–7, 334–6, 340–6, 397–8; at Sankisa, 255–6, 256; at Sarnath, 331, 334, 355; at Shitala Devi temple (Patna), 318–19

  Scythians, 66, 113, 132, 134, 234, 289, 366

  Seleukos (Macedonian general), 56, 57, 59, 60, 60–1, 62, 176, 178, 376; alliance with Chandragupta, 57–8, 59–61, 68, 367–9; invasion of India by (305 BCE), 57–8, 59–60, 63, 68; Seleucid Empire, 61, 62–3, 335, 374

  Sen, Babu Ramkomal, 130

  Sennart, Émile, 295, 309

  Shah Alam II, 32, 40

  Shah Jehan, xv, 16

  Shams-i Siraj ‘Afif, 11–12, 14, 15

  Shankacharya, Adi, xiii, 228, 399, 400

  Shankacharya, Shaivite temple of, 228

  Shastry, Shama, 306

  Shishunga dynasty, 34

  Shitala Devi temple (Patna), 318–19, 322

  Shore, Sir John, 31, 70

  Shrinagar, 76

  Shunga dynasty, 36, 200, 238, 246–7, 277, 278, 294, 359, 397

  Siam, 168, 186, 327

  Sikhism, xviii–xix, 21, 40, 233, 235

  Sircar, C.D., 405

  Sisikottos (Sisocostus/Sashigupta) see Chandragupta, King

  slavery, 1–2, 7, 9, 13, 22, 98, 115

  Smith, Edward, 158

  Smith, Vincent, xvii, 315, 327, 330, 346

  Société Asiatique (France), 114

  Sohgaura plate, 314–17, 315

  Somadeva (poet), 66

  Sopara rock edict, 290

  Spooner, Dr David, 324–6, 325, 387

  Sravasti, 151, 214, 253, 269, 274, 285, 312, 315

  Sri Lanka, xvii; see also Ceylon

  Srinagar, 228

  Srivastiva, K.M., 328

  St Paul’s (public school, Darjeeling), 183

  Stirling, Andrew, 108–9, 110, 112–13, 133, 154

  Strabo (historian), 45, 58, 61

  Strong, John, 190, 200

  Stuart, General Charles ‘Hindoo’, 154–5

  stupas (also topes: brick and plaster structures), 106, 117, 182, 212, 213, 243, 290, 320; in Afghanistan, 132; Amalaka stupa, 216; Ashoka’s building programme, 191–2, 195–6, 210, 268, 298, 385, 386, 387, 393; Ashoka’s relic stupas, 204–5, 207–8, 215, 216, 247–8, 328, 340, 341, 342; at Assandh, 377; Buddhist stupa cult, 294, 340, 385; in Ceylon, 150, 151; chaityas in Nepal, 126, 127; evidence of deliberate iconoclasm, 291; at Kapilavastu, 312, 313; Kesariya stupa, 294; at Lumbini pool, 214–15; at Piprahwa, 326–30; Pushyamitra’s destruction of, 196, 246–7; Ramagrama relic stupa, 340, 341, 342; see also Amaravati Maha Chaiyta or ‘Great Stupa’; Bharhut stupa; Sanchi (chaitya giri or ‘hill of shrines’); Sarnath complex of ruins