The Girls of Atomic City: The Untold Story of the Women Who Helped Win World War II
Page 40
Epilogue
Information regarding the Enola Gay exhibit controversy: “From The Enola Gay Controversy: History, Memory, and the Politics of Presentation,” by Michael J. Hogan, ed., Hiroshima in History and Memory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
Information on Manhattan Project National Park from author interviews and from “Manhattan Project National Historical Park Act,” Atomic Heritage Foundation, June 21, 2012.
Information regarding proposed Manhattan National Parks sites from Atomic Heritage Foundation http://www.atomicheritage.org/index.php/component/content/article/40-preservation-tab-/518-doi-transmits-recommendations.html, last accessed 8-28-2012.
Details regarding K-25 preservation from “Community celebrates K-25 historic preservation agreement,” by John Huotari, Oak Ridge Today, Aug. 10, 2012.
List of Author Interviews
Interviews were conducted between 2009 and 2012. This list is not comprehensive; repeated subsequent visits resulted in countless conversations of a less formal, yet often informative, nature.
Celia Klemski, Colleen Black, Dorothy Wilkinson, Helen Brown, Virginia Coleman, Toni Schmitt, Jane Puckett, Kattie Strickland, Rosemary Lane, Helen Jernigan, Rosemarie Waggener, Marty Rom, Elaine Buker, Lois Mallett, Betty and Harlan Whitehead, Dorothy Spoon, Martha Nichols, Anne Voelker, Helen Schwenn, Ardis and George Leichsenring, Jeanie Wilcox, Earline Banic, Carolyn Stelzman, Madge Newton, Dee Longendorfer, Lilian Johns Ross, Helen and Red Lynch, Bobbie Martin, Louise Walker, Liane Russell, Joanne Gailar, Georgia Marie Cloer Bailey, Louise Warmley, Mira Kimmelman, D. Ray Smith, William J. Wilcox Jr., William Tewes, Steven Stow, John Lane, Paul Wilkinson, Connie Bolling, Valeria Steele Roberson, Kathy Schmitt Gomez, Nannette Bissonnet, Martin McBride, Anne McBride, Rose Weaver, Ed Westcott (with D. Ray Smith and Don Hunnicutt), Jim Ramsey, Fred Strohl.
Vi Warren’s columns from Oak Ridge Journal as cited in text.
Thanks
During the seven years since I first came across this project, an astounding number of people offered their time, insights, and expertise. They have not only been helpful, but have given me, whether they realized it or not, motivation and inspiration when I needed it most. Every one of them deserves a heartfelt thank-you.
My tireless agent, Yfat Reiss Gendell, hung in there with me as this idea endured various incarnations and false starts, and did not stop until it found a good home. Her loyalty, intelligence, and compassion are a rare mix in this business. I also thank Yfat’s assistants, present and past, Erica Walker and Cecilia Campbell-Westlind, and the rest of the team at Foundry Literary + Media, including Yfat’s partner, Peter McGuigan, David Patterson, and Stephanie Abou.
I am indebted to my remarkable editor, Michelle Howry. Her enthusiasm for this project, combined with her dedication, tenacity, and thoughtfulness, have made this book much better than it would have been had I been left to my own devices. I am well aware that I hit the editorial jackpot when my proposal landed on her desk. She is part of an exceptional team at Touchstone that includes her assistant, Kiele Raymond; publisher Stacy Creamer; editorial director Sally Kim; associate publisher David Falk; the marketing and publicity team of Marcia Burch, Justina Batchelor, and Meredith Vilarello; also Josh Karpf and his production and copyediting squad, including copy editor Toby Yuen, and proofreaders Tricia Tamburr and Judy Myers and compositor Meghan Day Healey; cover designers Cherlynne Li and Ervin Serrano; and interior designer Ruth Lee-Mui. Molly Puldon wrote the wonderful Reading Group Guide. I feel very fortunate to have had all of you helping out along the way.
There are a number of organizations and people that I have tapped as resources throughout the researching and writing of this book. I truly enjoyed the brief time I spent with Cindy Kelly at the Atomic Heritage Foundation. She is the driving force behind the nationwide preservation efforts of the Manhattan Project sites. Several organizations helped with oral histories, including Courtney Esposito at the Smithsonian Institution Archives, and Brandon Barton, Stella Zhu, and especially Alva Moore Stevenson with the Center for Oral History Research at the Charles E. Young Research Library at UCLA. Also thanks to librarian Geneva Holiday at the Davis Library at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill for locating critical Joan Hinton resources; and Ted McCafferty, Cleveland Public Library, who located resources pertaining to Evelyn Handcock Ferguson. Several branches of the National Archives and Records Administration have been instrumental in helping me navigate the overwhelming sea of documents and photos that this irreplaceable national treasure offers every American citizen. At College Park, Maryland, Edward McCarter and Nick Natanson assisted me as I waded through the thousands of Ed Westcott photos that are preserved there. Susan Clifton, Douglas Swanson, and Dennis Braden at Archives I in Washington, DC, have provided advance support for this book, offering valuable advice for outreach and lectures. David Satterfield at NARA’s personnel records office helped me locate World War II service records. I must give many thanks to National Archives public affairs specialist Miriam Kleiman, who has been a sort of National Archives tour guide and first responder, always managing to introduce me to the right people at the right time, and pointing me in the right direction.
The National Archives at Atlanta is the primary home to the Atomic Energy Commission records and much more; this facility has played a key role in the researching of this book. Everyone at that facility went out of their way to help me find what I was looking for, including Guy Hall, John Whitehurst, Kevin Baker, Maureen Hill, and Catherine Farmer. A very special thank-you goes out to Joel Walker. Joel’s contagious excitement about the Atomic Energy Commission collection made my work not only easier but also much more enjoyable. He is a tremendous asset to both the National Archives and the legacy of the Manhattan Project.
I would like to give the biggest of thank-yous to the city of Oak Ridge. Countless individuals there have taken time to talk and visit with me, suggest potential interviewees, or simply offer friendly advice and encouragement. I have enjoyed attending several events hosted by the Oak Ridge Heritage and Preservation Association. The Oak Ridge Public Library has a wonderful “Oak Ridge Room,” and Teresa Fortney and especially Anne Marie Hamilton-Brehm have assisted me there. There are two museums in particular to which I would like to give credit: the Children’s Museum of Oak Ridge, where I was assisted by Margaret Allard, and the American Museum of Science and Energy, where I have had the good fortune of getting to know Deputy Director Ken Mayes.
Many individuals in the Oak Ridge community provided time, information, and contacts. Many others submitted to interviews, and though they may not have been highlighted in the book, they were nonetheless invaluable. For their time and energy I thank Rose Weaver, Martin and Anne McBride, Henry Perry, Ethel Steinhauer, Emily and Don Hunnicut, Rosemarie Waggener, Marty Rom, Elaine Buker, Lois Mallett, Betty and Harlan Whitehead, Dorothy Spoon, Martha Nichols, Anne Voelker, Helen Schwenn, Ardis and George Leichsenring, Earline Banic, Carolyn Stelzman, Madge Newton, Dee Longendorfer, Lilian Johns Ross, Helen and Red Lynch, Bobbie Martin, Louise Walker, Joanne Gailar, Georgia Marie Cloer Bailey, Louise Warmley, Steven Stow, John Lane, Paul Wilkinson, Connie Bolling, Nannette Bissonet, Jim and John Klemski, Jim Ramsey, Fred Strohl, Valeria Steele Roberson, Liane Russell, Mira Kimmelman, Helen Jernigan, Kathy Schmitt Gomez, Suzanne and Peter Angelini, and Beverly and HalliBurton Puckett.
I have a special place in my heart for certain “Men of Atomic City”: Bill Tewes has provided wonderful stories not only about Oak Ridge, but also concerning the experiences of women there during the war, thanks to his willingness to share remembrances of his wife, Audrey. Without Ed Westcott’s photos, I very likely would never have begun looking into Oak Ridge’s World War II history. He is an irreplaceable window into this world. I always light up at the indefatigable Bill Wilcox, whose dedication to preserving history and living a meaningful life is truly inspiring. His wife, Jeanie, never fails to have a joke and a smile for me. And dear Ray Smith has introduced me to cou
ntless contacts, provided numerous resources, and keeps me in the loop about everything going on in and around Oak Ridge. He is a one-man historical society, and I have enjoyed getting to know him and his lovely wife, Fanny. Ray Smith and Bill Wilcox are unique, selfless and driven, working for a cause with little recognition. I adore them.
This book would not exist in any meaningful way, shape, or form without the generosity of time and spirit offered up so freely and joyfully by the women featured in this book: Colleen Black, Rosemary Lane, Dot Wilkinson, Helen Brown, Kattie Strickland, Jane Puckett, Celia Klemski, Toni Schmitt, and Virginia Coleman. Knowing them has enriched my life and work in ways I am still discovering.
There is nothing more important than the support of family and friends throughout the long process of writing a book, and I have been ridiculously fortunate in this arena. My local bookstore in Asheville, North Carolina, Malaprop’s, is an author’s best friend. Emoke B’Racz and Linda Barrett Knopp have created and nurtured a lasting and valuable institution—a true haven for those who love books. Alsace Walentine in particular has helped me with events, signings, publicity, and so much more. George Fleming kept my spirits up. Buncombe County Library’s Lyme Kedic helped track down the untrackable in the book world. Drake Witham was not only a valuable set of eyes, but also boots on the ground in Los Angeles when I needed them. I can’t say enough about the luminous spirit and rigorous mind of Kathryn Temple, whose assistance kept me sane.
And finally, this book would never have been possible without the support, patience, sharp eyes, and kind heart of my husband, Joseph D’Agnese.
Thank you.
Index
A
Abelson, Phil, 107
ACME Insurance Company, 74, 168, 184
Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments (ACHRE), 293
Alamogordo, N.Mex., Trinity test at, 233–38, 239, 241, 242, 244, 251, 275
alcohol, 143–44, 154
Allison, Sam, 236
Aluminum Company of America, 100
American Journal of Psychiatry, 201
American Museum of Science and Energy (AMSE), 304, 312
Anderson, Herb, 77
Archer Daniels Midland warehouses, 10
Arizona, USS, 71
Army, U.S., 49, 145
Corps of Engineers, 21, 291
Counter Intelligence Corps, 275, 303–4
Asahi Shimbun, 290
atom, 32, 56
Bohr’s model of, 60
neutrons in, 32–34
bombardment of Tubealloy with, 33, 58–59
fission and, 61, 76, 100
nucleus of, 32, 60
splitting, 34
atomic bomb (“the Gadget”), xvii, 100, 230–31, 298
Eisenhower and, 246
Germany’s research on, 62, 119, 228, 252–53, 258
gun version of, 207, 226–27, 251
implosion version of, 207, 226, 235, 272
Interim Committee and, 227–28, 230
Jumbo container for, 235
Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty and, 299
news of CEW’s involvement in, 249, 256–57, 259–62, 264–68, 270–71, 273
in popular culture, 298–99
Soviet Union and, 243, 298, 299
Stimson on, 258
test of, 233–38, 239, 241, 242, 244, 251, 275
atomic bombing of Japan, see Japan, atomic bombing of
atomic energy, 257, 260
Atomic Energy Act, 295, 297
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 293, 296, 297, 298, 305–6
files on, 312–13
Atomic Energy Community Act, 297
atomic fission, 61, 76, 100, 260, 263, 293–94
Atomic Heritage Foundation (AHF), 313, 314
atomic number, 32
Austria, 58
B
B-29s, 230
Enola Gay, 252, 313
babysitting, 95–96, 127
Bainbridge, Kenneth, 244
Baker, Nicholas, see Bohr, Niels
Baker and Williams Warehouses, 9–10
barium, 59, 60
Barkley, Alben, 296
Barnett, Paul, 44
Beast from 20,000 Fathoms, The, 298–99
beer, 143–44
Beginning or the End, The, 294
Belgian Congo, 18, 99
Bell, Daniel, 104
Berkeley Radiation Laboratory, xv, 16, 102, 152
Bethe, Hans, 174
Big Ridge Park, 142
Bingaman, Jeff, 313
Black, Clifford (“Blackie”), 126, 139–40, 214, 216, 247, 280–82, 305–6
Colleen’s marriage to, 305
proposal of, 216, 280–82
Black, Colleen Rowan, xiii, 1, 81–82, 85–90, 117, 138, 139, 141–42, 189, 214–16, 219, 247, 253, 280–82, 305–7, 314
arrival at CEW, 82, 84
Christmas and, 189–90
Clifford Black and, 126, 139–40, 214, 216, 247, 280–82
Clifford’s marriage to, 305
Clifford’s proposal to, 216, 280–82
fatigues worn by, 214–15
housing and, 86
as leak test operator, 124–27, 214, 260
memorabilia saved by, 90
Black Oak Ridge, 82, 209
black residents, 47, 91–92, 97, 144–46, 276, 301–2
cafeteria for, 92
housing for, 47, 48, 91–92, 145–46
school segregation and, 302
Bohemian Club, 15
Bohemian Grove, 15–17
Bohr, Niels (“Nicholas Baker”), xvi, 58–61, 174–75
Bragg, Peter, Jr., 172
Braun, Eva, 227
Brewing Industry Foundation, 143
Brooks, Robert, 308
Brown, Helen Hall, xiv, 1–2, 72–74, 158–62, 167, 189, 247, 260, 265, 277, 302, 314
basketball and softball played by, 140–41, 158–59, 160, 302
as calutron cubicle operator, 114–17
clearance for, 72
marriage of, 302
recruited as informant, 72–74, 117–18
recruited for CEW, 159–60
Brown, Lloyd, 302
Brown, Mrs., 134, 135
Brown-Patterson Agreement, 85
Burchett, Wilfred, 290–91
Bush, Vannevar, 258–59
C
Cade, Ebb (HP-12), xv, 209–11, 246–47
plutonium injections of, 221–22, 247, 292–93
calutron cubicle operators, 14, 103, 109, 112–17, 120, 189, 262
calutrons (D units), 102–4, 119, 243
Campbell, Miriam White, 251
carbon, 33
Carrizozo, N.Mex., 237
Celotex Corporation, 83
cemesto, 83
censorship, 154, 157, 237, 259–60
of mail, 161–62, 177
of news reports, 290, 291
CEW, see Clinton Engineer Works
Chapel on the Hill, 52–53, 141–42, 217, 276
Chicago Defender, 301
Chicago Metallurgical Laboratory, xvi, 75, 80, 151, 152, 174, 230, 234, 241, 242, 288
Chicago Pile-1, xvi
China, 245
China Syndrome, The, 304
Churchill, Winston, 236, 238, 239, 242, 253
church services, 52–53, 141–42, 145
Clark, Dwight, 221, 222
Clarke, Eric Kent, xv, 96–97, 135, 184–86, 198–200, 315
Clement, Frank, 297
Clinch River, 22, 26
Clinton, Bill, 293
Clinton, Tenn., 20–21
Clinton Engineer Works (CEW; Site X; Kingston Demolition Range; the Reservation), x, xvi, 19, 174
advantages of location, 21–22
attitudes about, 185, 186
average age of workers at, 138
badges for workers at, 113
cafeterias at, 51, 92
black employees at, 47, 91–92, 97, 144–46, 276
bus system for,
112–13, 211–12
Castle on the Hill (administration building), 1, 39–41, 51, 83, 111, 189, 196
censorship of letters and, 161–62, 177
clearances for workers at, 63–65, 153
codes used at, 119
Congress and, 224–25, 227
construction of, 20–21, 28–29, 37, 52, 82–84, 85, 88, 211
displaced former residents as workers at, 28
expansion of, 211
Groves’s address to workers at, 287
guards at, 90–91, 113
informants at, 72–74, 117–18, 167–69, 212–13
K-25 plant, xiii, xvi, 29, 47, 82–85, 87, 100, 106, 108, 117, 122–24, 189, 191, 192, 205–6, 209, 247, 259, 273, 295, 302, 313, 314