The Girls of Atomic City: The Untold Story of the Women Who Helped Win World War II
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bomber plane and, 219–21
closing of, 295
construction of, 101, 105, 191
gaseous diffusion process at, 101–2, 191
name of, 105
shape of building, 102
size of, 101, 104
start of full operations at, 201–3
K-27 plant, 192, 295
local companies angered by, 147
map of, xviii–xix
mud and lack of sidewalks at, 37–39, 51, 70, 82, 83, 84, 137, 146, 148, 183, 184, 223
and news of atomic bomb, 249
orientation films at, 65
personnel security questionnaires for, 110–11
photographic documentation of, 30–31, 156, 233, 240, 245–46, 273
plant closings at, 277
population size at, 211, 295
postwar transformation of, 296–97
progress made at, 205–6, 219
psychiatric issues affecting workers at, 96–97, 184–87, 198–99
questions about future of, 269–70
relationship with surrounding communities, 146–47
residents evicted for construction of, 23–29, 83, 146
rumors at, 162–63
S-50 plant, xiv, xvi, 100, 106–7, 191–92, 206, 259
construction of, 172, 192
liquid thermal diffusion process at, 101, 107–8, 192
operations started at, 205
safety and health issues at, 206–7
search for workers for, 49–50
secrecy surrounding, 64, 65, 117–19, 122, 165–67, 182–84, 212, 260–61
secret of work revealed, 249, 256–57, 259–62, 264–68, 270–71, 273
security measures and, 152–55, 162–63, 177, 184
selection of location, 17, 18
size of, 26, 83
speculations on purpose of, 118, 178, 213–14
Stimson’s tour of, 223–24, 226
Townsite, see Townsite
training at, 65, 68
Tubealloy in, see Tubealloy
unions and, 153
victory in Europe and, 229
War Department letter to workers at, 270–71
women’s importance to, 97–98, 110–11
X-10 plant, xvi, 29, 53, 83–84, 100, 196, 259, 278, 279
construction of, 100
name of, 105
as scientific research facility, 295
Y-12 plant, xiii, xvi, 29, 68, 83–84, 100, 187, 191, 192, 203–4, 205–6, 243, 247, 259, 300, 301, 302, 311, 313, 314
accident at, 206
adding machines at, 119–20, 247, 301
basketball team of, 141
calutron cubicle operators at, 103, 109, 112–17, 120, 189, 262
clerks at, 119–22
closing of, 277, 295
codes used at, 119
construction of, 100
cost of, 206
electromagnetic separation process at, 101, 102–5, 106, 109, 192
name of, 105
scale of operations at, 104, 105, 106, 119
Clinton Engineer Works housing, 91, 143, 211
black cafeteria and, 92
for black residents, 47, 48, 91–92, 145–46
dissatisfaction with, 186
East Village, 91
Happy Valley trailer encampment, 63, 81, 82, 84–89
amusement fairway at, 142
laundry in, 89
shopping in, 89
streetlights in, 87
telephones in, 88
water supply in, 87
hutments, 47–48, 82, 85, 87, 90–92, 145
number of residents of, 84
plans for Negro Village, 91, 145
Victory cottages, 211
women’s dormitories, 40, 46, 50, 86, 94–96, 134–35, 211
Code of Wartime Practices for American Broadcasters, 154
Cohn, Waldo, 262
Cold War, 298, 299
College Women’s Club, 95
Coleman, Charles, 301
Coleman, Virginia Spivey, xiii, 1–2, 63, 65–68, 187–89, 204, 212–13, 247–48, 260–61, 267–68, 270, 301, 314–15
arrival at CEW, 65, 66–67
as chemist, 66, 67, 118–19, 187–89
clearance for, 65, 67
at college, 66, 95, 187, 188
family of, 188
journey to CEW, 66
marriage of, 301
as Piper’s assistant, 68
promotion withheld from, 118
recruited for CEW job, 66
as teacher, 67–68
Colored Camp Council, 145
Colored Employees of Roane-Anderson Company, 92
Columbia University, 9
Communism, 174, 238
Compton, Arthur (“Arthur Holly”; “Holly Compton”; “Comus”), xvi, 16, 100, 151, 228
and decision to use atomic bomb on Japan, 242–43, 244
first self-sustaining nuclear reaction experiment and, 78
Conant, James, 16, 78
Congress, 224–25, 227
Connelly, Matthew, 226
Coobs, Betty, 266
cookbooks, 165
Cooper, Prentice, 29
Corps of Engineers Land Acquisition Section, 24, 26
Crenshaw, Lieutenant Colonel, 91
crime, 153
D
Dale, Peter, 292
dances, 137–39, 143, 178–79, 181
Del Genio, Nick, 243, 245, 251
Department of Energy, 293
Depression, Great, 4, 25, 82, 83, 165, 185
Diamond, Mr., 41–42, 111, 112, 129–30, 180, 266
Diebner, Kurt, 228
Dietrich, Marlene, 127
District Engineer, the, see Nichols, Kenneth
Donne, John, 236
Dow Chemical Company, 301
DuPont, 49, 259, 279
E
Eastman Kodak, 105
Edwards, Elizabeth, 89, 261
Einstein, Albert, 60–62, 242
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 246, 297, 299
Eldorado Mining and Refining Limited, 10, 99
electromagnetic separation method, 101, 102–5, 106, 109, 192
electrons, 32
electroshock treatment, 200–201
Element 94 (plutonium), xvii, 78, 100, 226, 272, 279
physiological hazards of working with, 207–8
production of, 100
test subjects injected with, 221–22, 247, 292–93
elements, 32–33
employment, 84–85
employers’ anger at Project, 147
racial discrimination in, 46–47
Statement of Availability program and, 84, 87, 168
energy, conversion of mass into, 60
Energy, Department of, 293
Engineer, the, see Nichols, Kenneth
Enola Gay, 252, 313
Evans, Redd, 30
Evans, Tom, 220–21
Executive Order No. 8802, 46
F
Fair Employment Practices Committee, 46
farm equipment, 147
Farmer, Henry, see Fermi, Enrico
Farm Hall, 228, 245, 263–64
Farrell, General, 290
FBI, 65, 106, 112, 153, 174
Federal Civil Defense Administration, 298
Felton, Gene, 278–79
Fercleve, 205
Ferguson, Evelyn (Mrs. H. K.), xiv, 107–8, 205
Ferguson, Harold Kingsley, 107, 108
Fermi, Enrico (“Henry Farmer”; “the Italian Navigator”), xiv, xv, 32–34, 57, 58, 61, 75–80, 100, 151, 174, 228, 234, 294
atomic bomb test and, 235
in first self-sustaining nuclear reaction experiment, 76–78
“Possible Production of Elements of Atomic Number Higher Than 92,” 32
Fermi, Laura, 61, 75, 78–80
Feynman, Richard, 174
fission, 61, 76, 100, 260, 263, 293–94
fluorine, 131
Ford, Bacon
& Davis, 124
49 (plutonium), see Element 94
Fox, Mark, 192
Franck, James, 151, 174, 230
Friedell, Hymer, 206–7, 211, 221–22
Frisch, Otto, 57, 59–61, 80, 234, 263–64
Fuchs, Klaus, 236, 243, 298
G
Gadget, the, see atomic bomb
gaseous diffusion separation process:
at K-25, 101–2, 191
at K-27, 192
Gates, Frances Smith, 156–57
Geiger counters, 288
General, the, see Groves, Leslie
General Electric, 125, 151
George Washington University (GWU), 44–45
Germany, 18, 19, 58, 152, 227, 238, 291
atomic research in, 62, 119, 228, 252–53, 258
surrender of, 229, 230, 254
glyptal, 125
Goldright, David, 293
Graves, Al, 234–35
Graves, Elizabeth (“Diz”), xv, 234–35, 237
Great Depression, 4, 25, 82, 83, 165, 185
Great Smoky Mountains National Park, 23, 25
Greenglass, David (Kalibr), 175, 237, 243, 298
Greer, Jane, see Puckett, Jane Greer
Grew, Joseph, 9
grits, 13–14
Grove Center, 142
Groves, Leslie (“The General”), xv, 16–17, 18, 83, 101, 105, 172, 173, 175, 181, 192, 194, 223–26, 228, 230–31, 232, 290, 291
and amount of Tubealloy needed, 105–6
and atomic bombing of Japan, 243, 244, 251, 252, 272, 290
atomic bomb test and, 235–38, 241, 242
Celia Szapka and, 55
CEW workers addressed by, 287
Evelyn Ferguson’s meeting with, 107
liquid thermal diffusion method and, 107–8
Manhattan Project directed by, 18, 259
Meitner and, 294
security measures and, 152–53
Westcott’s meeting with, 233, 239–41
Y-12 plant and, 105
H
Hahn, Otto, 57–59, 61, 228, 245, 263
Nobel Prize awarded to, 293–94
Hall, Harold, 140–41, 277
Hall, Helen, see Brown, Helen Hall
Hanford, Washington (Site W), xvii, 100, 174
Happy Valley trailer encampment, 63, 81, 82, 84–89
amusement fairway at, 142
laundry in, 89
shopping in, 89
streetlights in, 87
telephones in, 88
water supply in, 87
Harrison, George L., 238
Harshaw Chemical Co., 99
Harwit, Martin O., 313
Hastings, Doc, 313
Hawaii, 286
Heisenberg, Werner, 228–29
Hempelmann, Louis, 208
Hendrix, John, 27–28, 314
Hepburn, Katharine, 127
Hill, the, see Los Alamos, N.Mex.
Himmler, Heinrich, 58
Hinton, Joan, xiv, 233–34, 237
Hirohito, 272
Hiroshima, 250–53, 255, 257, 267, 271, 275, 287, 288, 290–91, 298, 299, 307
Hitler, Adolf, 18, 57, 165
death of, 227
H. K. Ferguson Company, xiv, 107, 108, 172, 205
Hoff, Geraldine, 30
Hoffman, Bernard, 291
Holly, Arthur, see Compton, Arthur
Holy Sonnets (Donne), 236
Hornbeak, Tenn., 69–70
House Military Affairs, 28
Howland, Dr., 221, 222
HP-12, see Cade, Ebb
hydrogen peroxide, 119
I
Indianapolis, USS, 251
informants, 72–74, 117–18, 167–69, 212–13
intelligence agents, 154
Intelligence and Security Division, 167
Interim Committee, 227–28, 230
International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 85
International Friendship Bell, 307–8
Iowa State College, 99
isotopes, 33, 34, 59
radioactive, 295
Italian Navigator, see Fermi, Enrico
Italy, 61, 75, 152
Iwo Jima, 238, 252
J
J. A. Jones Construction, 46, 87, 209
James, Harry, 190
Japan, 152, 199, 201, 238, 239, 295
Allied occupation of, 291
bombing of Tokyo, 229–30
Pearl Harbor, 56, 154, 250, 253, 273, 308
Potsdam Proclamation and, 245, 255
surrender of, 258, 272–73
U.S. relations with, 307–8
Japan, atomic bombing of, 250–56, 271, 275, 277, 278
decision made, 230, 241–44
Hiroshima, 250–53, 255, 257, 267, 271, 275, 287, 288, 290–91, 298, 299, 307
leaflets dropped on cities, 255–56
Nagasaki, 272–73, 288–89, 291
Stimson’s statement on, 258–60
Truman and, 241–44, 251, 255–56, 278, 292
Warren’s trip to assess aftermath of, 288–90, 291
Jeffries, Zay, 151
Jennings, John, Jr., 28
Jones, David, 70
Jones, Dorothy (“Dot”), see Wilkinson, Dorothy Jones
Jones, J. A., 88
Jones, Willard Worth “Shorty,” 70–71, 308
Jones, Woodrow, 70
K
K-25 plant, xiii, xvi, 29, 47, 82–85, 87, 100, 106, 108, 117, 122–24, 189, 191, 192, 205–6, 209, 247, 259, 273, 295, 302, 313, 314
bomber plane and, 219–21
closing of, 295
construction of, 101, 105, 191
gaseous diffusion process at, 101–2, 191
name of, 105
shape of building, 102
size of, 101, 104
start of full operations at, 201–3
K-27 plant, 192, 295
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, 57, 263
Kalibr (David Greenglass), 175, 237, 243, 298
KCBA, 236
Kelly, Cynthia, 313
Kelly, Virginia, 66
Kennedy, John F., 299
assassination of, 300
Kingston Demolition Range, see Clinton Engineer Works
Kistiakowsky, George, 174
Klemski, Celia Szapka, xiii, 2, 3–14, 28, 84, 93–94, 141–42, 189, 247, 264–65, 279–80, 314
arrival at CEW, 37–40, 50–55
family of, 6–8, 193–94
Henry Klemski and, 53, 54, 93–94, 111, 148, 193–96
identification badges of, 39–40
interrogation of, 194
journey to CEW, 3–5, 7, 12–14
Knoxville outings of, 146–48
letters home, 161
marriage of, 193, 195–96, 216
pregnancy of, 216–17, 279–80
as Project secretary in New York, 5, 9–11
and secrecy surrounding Project, 3, 4–5, 10–11
in Shenandoah, 4, 7, 9
State Department job of, 8–9
transfer to Oak Ridge, 10–11
work of, 53–55, 111, 196
Klemski, Henry, 53, 54, 93–94, 111, 148, 193–96, 279–80
Celia’s marriage to, 193, 195–96, 216
Knoxville, Tenn., 12–14, 146–48
Knoxville Journal, 273
Kokura, 252
Korean War, 299
Koval, George, 243, 298
Koval, Ruth, 298
Kramish, Arnold, 172–73, 175
Kramish, Sarah, 173
Kyoto, 251
L
Lane, John, 303, 314
Lane, Rosemary Maiers, xiv, 1, 52, 95, 96, 127–28, 135, 141–42, 148, 181–82, 189, 196–201, 247, 250, 257, 277–79, 303, 314
marriage of, 303
mentally ill patient and, 197–201
Langham, Wright, 211, 292
Larson, Dr., 204, 248
Laurence, William L., 228, 244, 246, 275
Lawrence, Ernest O. (“Ernest Lawson”), xv, 16, 102, 108, 109, 110, 174
Leighton, George Ross, 4
Leverett, M. C., 152
Leyshon, Emily, 187
Life, 143, 291
Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 299
lipstick, 137–38
liquid nitrogen, 119
liquid thermal diffusion process:
at Philadelphia Navy Yard, 172–73
at S-50 plant, 101, 107–8, 192
Loeb, John Jacob, 30
London Daily Express, 290
Los Alamos, N.Mex. (Site Y; the Hill), xvi, 19, 80, 100, 174, 251
atomic bomb test, 233–38, 239, 241, 242, 244, 251, 275