Machines of Loving Grace

by John Markoff

  33.Jaron Lanier, Who Owns the Future? Kindle ed. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014), Kindle location 222–230.

  34.Tim O’Reilly, Google+, January 9, 2014, https://plus.google.com/+TimOReilly/posts/F85gaWoBp3Z.

  35.Matthieu Pélissié du Rausas, James Manyika, Eric Hazan, Jacques Bughin, Michael Chui, and Rémi Said, “Internet Matters: The Net’s Sweeping Impact on Growth, Jobs, and Prosperity,” McKinsey Global Institute, May 2011, http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/high_tech_telecoms_internet/internet_matters.

  36.“The Last Kodak Moment?” Economist, January 12, 2012, http://www.economist.com/node/21542796.

  37.Ray Kurzweil, The Singularity Is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology (New York: Penguin Books, 2006).

  38.“The Coming Technological Singularity: How to Survive in the Post-Human Era,” VISION-21 Symposium, NASA Lewis Research Center, NASA technical reports, NASA CP-10129, March 30–31, 1993, https://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/vinge/misc/singu larity.html.

  39.Robert Geraci, Apocalyptic AI: Visions of Heaven in Robotics, Artificial Intelligence, and Virtual Reality, reprint edition (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).

  40.Moshe Y. Vardi, “The Consequences of Machine Intelligence,” Atlantic, October 25, 2012, http://www.theatlantic.com/tech nology/archive/2012/10/the-consequences-of-machine-intelli gence/264066.

  41.Moshe Y. Vardi, “If Machines Are Capable of Doing Almost Any Work Humans Can Do, What Will Humans Do?” (white paper presented at Innovation 4 Jobs Conference, Menlo Park, California, 2013).

  42.Author telephone interview with Moshe Vardi, May 9, 2013.

  43.“IFR: Robots Improve Manufacturing Success & Create Jobs,” press release, International Federation of Robotics, February 28, 2013, http://www.ifr.org/news/ifr-press-release/ifr-robots-improve-manufacturing-success-create-jobs-469.

  44.Robert J. Gordon, “Is US Economic Growth Over? Faltering Innovation Confronts the Six Headwinds,” Policy Insight 63 (September 2012), Centre for Economic Policy Research, http://www.cepr.org/sites/default/files/policy_insights/PolicyInsight63.pdf.

  45.Robert J. Gordon, “The Demise of U.S. Economic Growth: Restatement, Rebuttal, and Reflections,” NBER Working Paper No. 19895, February 2014, National Bureau of Economic Research, http://www.nber.org/papers/w19895.

  46.“Robert Gordon, Erik Brynjolfsson Debate the Future of Work at TED 2013,” TED Blog video, April 23, 2013, https://www.you tube.com/watch?v=ofWK5WglgiI.

  47.Robert J. Gordon, “Why Innovation Won’t Save Us,” Wall Street Journal, December 21, 2012, http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887324461604578191781756437940.

  48.Gordon, “The Demise of U.S. Economic Growth.”

  49.Craig Trudell, Yukiko Hagiwara, and Jie Ma, “Humans Replacing Robots Herald Toyota’s Vision of Future,” BloombergBusiness, April 7, 2014, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-04-06/humans-replacing-robots-herald-toyota-s-vision-of-future.html.

  50.Stewart Brand, “We Are As Gods,” Whole Earth Catalog, Fall 1968, http://www.wholeearth.com/issue/1010/article/195/we.are.as.gods.

  51.Amir Efrati, “Google Beat Facebook for DeepMind, Creates Ethics Board,” Information, January 27, 2014, https://www.theinformation.com/google-beat-facebook-for-deepmind-creates-ethics-board.

  52.“Foxconn Chairman Likens His Workforce to Animals,” WantChina Times, January 19, 2012, http://www.wantchinatimes.com/news-subclass-cnt.aspx?id=20120119000111&cid=1102.

  53.“World Population Ageing 2013,” Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division, (New York: United Nations, 2013) http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/ageing/WorldPopulationAgeing2013.pdf.

  54.“Robot Caregivers Help the Elderly,” Digital Agenda for Europe, A Europe 2020 Initiative, May 5, 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/en/news/robot-caregivers-help-elderly.

  55.Jeffrey S. Passel and D’vera Cohn, “U.S. Population Projections: 2005–2050,” Social & Demographic Trends, Pew Research Center, February 11, 2008, http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2008/02/11/us-population-projections-2005-2050.

  56.“Baby Boomers Retire,” Pew Research Center, December 29, 2010 http://www.pewresearch.org/daily-number/baby-boomers-retire.

  4|THE RISE, FALL, AND RESURRECTION OF AI

  1.David C. Brock, “How William Shockley’s Robot Dream Helped Launch Silicon Valley,” IEEE Spectrum, November 29, 2013, http://spectrum.ieee.org/at-work/innovation/how-william-shockleys-robot-dream-helped-launch-silicon-valley.

  2.David C. Brock, “From Automation to Silicon Valley: The Automation Movement of the 1950s, Arnold Beckman, and William Shockley,” History and Technology 28, no. 4 (2012), http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07341512.2012.756236#.VQTPKCbHi_A.

  3.Ibid.

  4.John Markoff, “Robotic Vehicles Race, but Innovation Wins,” New York Times, September 14, 2005.

  5.John Markoff, What the Dormouse Said: How the Sixties Counterculture Shaped the Personal Computer Industry (New York: Viking, 2005).

  6.Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence, 2nd ed. (Natick, MA: A K Peters/CRC Press, 2004), 268.

  7.Ibid., 273.

  8.Brad Darrach, “Meet Shaky [sic], the First Electronic Person: The Fascinating and Fearsome Reality of a Machine with a Mind of Its Own,” Life, November 1970.

  9.Charles A. Rosen, “Robots, Productivity, and Quality,” SRI, Artificial Intelligence Center, technical note no. 66, May 1972.

  10.Nils J. Nilsson, The Quest for Artificial Intelligence, 2010, 77, web version, http://ai.stanford.edu/~nilsson/QAI/qai.pdf.

  11.Margaret Boden, Mind as Machine (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2006), 381.

  12.AI@50, Dartmouth College Artificial Intelligence Conference, July 13–15, 2006.

  13.Boden, Mind as Machine, 381.

  14.John McCarthy, book review of B. P. Bloomfield, The Question of Artificial Intelligence: Philosophical and Sociological Perspectives, in Annals of the History of Computing 10, no. 3 (1998).

  15.Ibid.

  16.Nilsson, The Quest for Artificial Intelligence, 77.

  17.AI@50, Dartmouth College Artificial Intelligence Conference, July 13–15, 2006.

  18.Interview with John McCarthy, Stanford University, July 19, 2001.

  19.Steven Levy, Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution (New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1984).

  20.Interview with John McCarthy, Stanford University, July 19, 2001.

  21.Raj Reddy, “Celebration of John McCarthy’s Accomplishments,” Stanford University, March 25, 2012, YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J_QGryGFb2o.

  22.Arthur L. Norberg, “An Interview with Bruce G. Buchanan,” June 11–12, 1991, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, http://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/107165/1/oh230bb.pdf.

  23.Hans Moravec, Mind Children: The Future of Robot and Human Intelligence (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 20.

  24.John McCarthy, “A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence,” August 31, 1955, http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/history/dartmouth/dartmouth.html.

  25.William J. Broad, “Computer Scientists Stymied in Their Quest to Match Human Vision,” New York Times, September 25, 1984, http://www.nytimes.com/1984/09/25/science/computer-scientists-stymied-in-their-quest-to-match-human-vision.html.

  26.John McCarthy, “Programs with Common Sense,” Stanford University, 1959, http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/mcc59.pdf.

  27.“The Dynabook of Alan Kay,” History of Computers, http://history-computer.com/ModernComputer/Personal/Dynabook.html.

  28.Robert Geraci, Apocalyptic AI: Visions of Heaven in Robotics, Artificial Intelligence, and Virtual Reality, reprint edition (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 2.

  29.John Markoff, “John McCarthy, 84, Dies; Computer Design Pioneer,” New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/science/26mccarthy.html?pagewanted=all.

  30.Hans Moravec, “
Today’s Computers, Intelligent Machines and Our Future,” Stanford University, July 21, 1976, http://www.frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/project.archive/general.articles/1978/analog.1978.html.

  31.Hans Moravec, “The Role of Raw Power in Intelligence,” May 12, 1976, http://www.frc.ri.cmu.edu/~hpm/project.archive/general.articles/1975/Raw.Power.html.

  32.Moravec, “Today’s Computers, Intelligent Machines and Our Future.”

  33.Markoff, What the Dormouse Said.

  34.Les Earnest, “Stanford Cart,” December 2012, http://www.stan ford.edu/~learnest/cart.htm.

  35.Ibid.

  36.Sheldon Breiner, “The Background Behind the First Airport Gun Detector,” http://breiner.com/sheldon/papers/First%20Gun%20Detector%20for%20Airport--Public%20Security.pdf.

  37.Robert Reinhold, “Reasoning Ability of Experts Is Codified for Computer Use,” New York Times, March 29, 1984.

  38.Jonathan Grudin, “AI and HCI: Two Fields Divided by a Common Focus,” AI Magazine, Winter 2009, http://research.microsoft.com/apps/pubs/default.aspx?id=138574.

  39.Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 203.

  40.Edward Edelson, “Expert Systems—Computers That Think Like People,” Popular Science, September 1982, 58.

  41.Ibid.

  42.Ibid.

  43.United Press International, “New Navy Device Learns by Doing,” New York Times, July 7, 1958.

  44.John Markoff, “Researchers Announce Breakthrough in Content Recognition Software,” New York Times, November 17, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/18/science/researchers-announce-breakthrough-in-content-recognition-software.html.

  45.Alex Rubinsteyn and Sergey Feldman, “NIPS and the Zuckerberg Visit,” Explain My Data, December 11, 2013 http://blog.explainmydata.com/2013/12/nips-and-zuckerberg-visit.html.

  5|WALKING AWAY

  1.Manfred E. Clynes and Nathan S. Kline, “Cyborgs and Space,” Astronautics, September, 1960, http://partners.nytimes.com/library/cyber/surf/022697surf-cyborg.html.

  2.David A. Mindell, Digital Apollo: Human and Machine in Spaceflight, Kindle ed. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011), Kindle location 1850.

  3.Ibid., Kindle location 352–364.

  4.Craig Covault, “Space Leaders Work to Replace Lunar Base with Manned Asteroid Missions,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, January 19, 2008, http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n0801/18avweek.

  5.Slide deck courtesy of Edward Feigenbaum.

  6.Morten Thanning Vendelo, “From Artificial Intelligence to Human Computer Interaction—An Interview with Terry Winograd,” Association for Information Systems, SIGSEMIS Bulletin 2, no. 3 & 4 (2005), http://www.researchgate.net/publication/236015807_From_Artificial_Intelligence_to_Human_Computer_Interaction_-_an_interview_with_Terry_Winograd.

  7.Terry Winograd lecture, “Filling in the ‘H’ in HCI,” mediaX 2013 Conference, January 8, 2013.

  8.John Markoff, “Joseph Weizenbaum, Famed Programmer, Is Dead at 85,” New York Times, March 13, 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/13/world/europe/13weizenbaum.html?_r=0.

  9.David W. Dunlap, “Looking Back: 1978—‘Farewell, Etaoin Shrdlu,’” Times Insider, New York Times, November 13, 2014.

  10.Terry Winograd, “Procedures as a Representation for Data in a Computer Program for Understanding Natural Language,” MIT AI Technical Report 235, February 1971, 38–39, http://hci.stanford.edu/winograd/shrdlu/AITR-235.pdf.

  11.Hubert Dreyfus, “Alchemy and Artificial Intelligence,” RAND Corporation, 1965, http://www.rand.org/pubs/papers/P3244.html.

  12.Hubert Dreyfus, “Why Heideggerian AI Failed and How Fixing It Would Require Making It More Heideggerian,” http://leidl mair.at/doc/WhyHeideggerianAIFailed.pdf.

  13.Dreyfus, “Alchemy and Artificial Intelligence.”

  14.Seymour Papert, “The Artificial Intelligence of Hubert L. Dreyfus: A Budget of Fallacies,” Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Project Mac, Memo. No. 154, January 1968, https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/6084.

  15.Vendelo, “From Artificial Intelligence to Human Computer Interaction.”

  16.Roger C. Schank and Robert P. Abelson, Scripts, Plans, Goals, and Understanding: An Inquiry into Human Knowledge Structures, Artificial Intelligence Series (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1977).

  17.Searle presentation before CS22 Introduction to the Philosophy and History of Artificial Intelligence, Stanford, October 25, 2013.

  18.Arthur L. Norberg, “An Interview with Terry Allen Winograd,” December 11, 1991, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, http://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/107717/1/oh237taw.

  19.Sergey Brin, Rajeev Motwani, Lawrence Page, and Terry Winograd, “What Can You Do with a Web in Your Pocket?” IEEE Data Engineering Bulletin 21, no. 2 (1998): 37–47, http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.36.2806&rep=rep1&type=pdf.

  20.Terry Winograd, “Shifting Viewpoints: Artificial Intelligence and Human-Computer Interaction,” Artificial Intelligence 170 (2006): 1256–1258, http://hci.stanford.edu/winograd/papers/ai-hci.pdf.

  21.Jeffrey Pfeffer and Robert I. Sutton, “Knowing ‘What’ to Do Is Not Enough: Turning Knowledge into Action,” California Management Review 42, no. 1 (1999).

  22.Ben Shneiderman, “List of Influences: Ben Shneiderman,” eagereyes, December 16, 2011, http://eagereyes.org/influences/ben-shneiderman.

  23.Tandy Trower, “A Parting Salute to Cliff Nass—Social Interface Pioneer and Good Friend,” Hoaloha Robotics, November 19, 2013, http://blog.hoaloharobotics.com/2013/11/19/a-parting-salute-to-cliff-nass-social-interface-pioneer-and-good-friend.

  24.Tandy Trower, “Bob and Beyond: A Microsoft Insider Remembers,” Technologizer, March 29, 2010, http://www.technologizer.com/2010/03/29/bob-and-beyond-a-microsoft-insider-remembers.

  25.Nicholas Negroponte, Being Digital (New York: Vintage, 1996), 101.

  26.Ben Shneiderman and Pattie Maes, “Direct Manipulation vs. Interface Agents: Excerpts from Debates at IUI 97 and CHI 97,” Association for Computing Machinery Interactions, November-December 1997, http://ritter.ist.psu.edu/misc/dirk-files/Papers/HRI-papers/User%20interface%20design%20issues/Direct%20manipulation%20vs.%20interface%20agents.pdf.

  27.Ibid.

  6|COLLABORATION

  1.Rodney Brooks, Flesh and Machines: How Robots Will Change Us (New York: Pantheon, 2002), 28.

  2.Ibid., 29.

  3.Ibid., 31.

  4.Rodney Brooks, “Elephants Don’t Play Chess,” Robotics and Autonomous Systems 6 (1990): 3–15, people.csail.mit.edu/brooks/papers/elephants.ps.Z.

  5.Ibid.

  6.Brooks, Flesh and Machines, 31.

  7.Steven Levy, Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution (New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1984), 132.

  8.R. H. MacMillan, Automation: Friend or Foe, (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1956), 1.

  9.Levy, Hackers, 130.

  10.Lee Felsenstein, “The Golemic Approach,” LeeFelsenstein.com, http://www.leefelsenstein.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Golemic_Approach_MS.pdf.

  11.Ibid., 4.

  12.Evgeny Morozov, “Making It,” New Yorker, January 13, 2014, http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/atlarge/2014/01/13/140113crat_atlarge_morozov?printable=true¤tPage=all.

  13.“Lee Felsenstein and the Convivial Computer,” Convivial Tools, July 23, 2007, http://www.conviviality.ouvaton.org/spip.php?article39.

  14.Lee Felsenstein, “The Tom Swift Terminal; or, A Convivial Cybernetic Device,” LeeFelsenstein.com, http://www.leefelsenstein.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/TST_scan_150.pdf.

  15.Dennis Liu, “Office 2010: The Movie,” YouTube, July 9, 2009, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VUawhjxLS2I.

  16.Steven Sinofsky, “PM at Microsoft,” Steven Sinofsky’s Microsoft TechTalk, December 16, 2005, http://blogs.msdn.com/b/techtalk/archive/2005/12/16/504872.aspx.

  17.“The Lumiere project: The Origins and Science Behind Microsoft’s Office Assistant,” Robotics Zeitgeist, 2009, http:/
/robotzeitgeist.com/2009/08/lumiere-project-origins-and-science.html.

  18.Lexi Krock, “The Final Eight Minutes,” Nova, WGBH, October 17, 2006, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/space/final-eight-minutes.html.

  19.Jessica Marshall, “Victory for Crowdsourced Biomolecule Design,” Nature, January 22, 2012, http://www.nature.com/news/victory-for-crowdsourced-biomolecule-design-1.9872.

  20.Sherry Turkle, Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other (New York: Basic Books, 2011), 101.

  21.Miriam Steffens, “Slaves That Are Reflections of Ourselves,” Sydney Morning Herald, November 19, 2012, http://www.smh.com.au/small-business/growing/slaves-that-are-reflections-of-ourselves-20121118-29k63.html.

  22.Daniel Crevier, AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 58.

  23.Ken Jennings, “My Puny Human Brain,” Slate, February 16, 2011.

  7|TO THE RESCUE

  1.Stuart Nathan, “Marc Raibert of Boston Dynamics,” Engineer, February, 22, 2010, http://www.theengineer.co.uk/in-depth/interviews/marc-raibert-of-boston-dynamics/1001065.article#ixzz2pevPQoYI.

  2.Public Information Office, “Fact Sheet on ‘Simon,’” Columbia University, May 18, 1950, http://www.blinkenlights.com/classiccmp/berkeley/simonfaq.html.

  3.Ivan E. Sutherland, letter to Grey Walter, November 10, 1957, http://cyberneticzoo.com/cyberneticanimals/1956-mechanical-animal-willian-robert-bert-sutherland-ivan-e-sutherland-american.

  4.Daniel Lovering, “Radioactive Robot: The Machines That Cleaned Up Three Mile Island,” Scientific American, March 27, 2009, http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/three-mile-island-robots.

  5.John Markoff, “The Creature That Lives in Pittsburgh,” New York Times, April 21, 1991, http://www.nytimes.com/1991/04/21/business/the-creature-that-lives-in-pittsburgh.html?src=pm&pagewanted=3&pagewanted=all.

  6.Marvin Minsky, “Telepresence: A Manifesto,” IEEE Spectrum, August 31, 2010, http://spectrum.ieee.org/robotics/artificial-intelligence/telepresence-a-manifesto.