No Two Alike

by Judith Rich Harris

75. Johnson, 2000/2004, pp. 233–235.

  76. Johnson, 2000/2004, p. 239. (Italics omitted.)

  77. Dalton, 2004, p. 889. On April 26, 2005, I received a letter from Sulloway, informing me that “The Inspector General’s Office at the National Science Foundation has conducted an inquiry into Johnson’s allegations and rejected them.” It is unclear, however, what kind of inquiry NSF conducted. According to Johnson, “No one from NSF ever contacted me about my data or anything else that related to the controversy” (e-mail, May 13, 2005).

  78. Goldsmith, 2004, p. 18.

  79. Quoted in Johnson, 2000/2004, p. 216.

  80. Sulloway, 1996, p. xiv.

  81. Scarr, 1992, p. 17.

  82. Plomin and Caspi, 1999.

  83. Harris, 1998a, pp. 30–31.

  84. Plomin et al., 2001, p. 226.

  85. Scarr, 1992; Bouchard, 1997.

  86. Reiss, 2000, p. 65.

  87. Bouchard, 1997, p. 61.

  CHAPTER 5: THE PERSON AND THE SITUATION

  1. Piaget, 1951/1962, p. 207.

  2. Mischel, 1968/1996, p. 22.

  3. Mischel, 1968/1996, p. 26.

  4. Mischel, 1968/1996, pp. 42–43.

  5. Pinker, 1997, pp. 7, 458.

  6. Mischel, 1968/1996, p. 38.

  7. Harris, 1998a, chapter 4.

  8. Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, Fagot, and Fetrow, 1994.

  9. Multivariate genetic analysis: Saudino, 1997. Shyness: Cherny, Fulker, Corley, Plomin, and DeFries, 1994. Activity level: Schmitz, Saudino, Plomin, Fulker, and DeFries, 1996.

  10. Caspi and Roberts, 2001.

  11. Schmitz et al., 1996.

  12. Mischel, 1968/1996, p. 28.

  13. Spelke, 1994.

  14. Rovee-Collier, 1993.

  15. Adolph, 1997. See also Adolph, 2000.

  16. Mischel, 1968/1996, p. 43.

  17. Pinker, 1994, p. 417. Pinker attributes the concept of similarity space to the philosopher W. V. O. Quine.

  18. Gray, 1999, p. 138.

  19. Bretherton, 1985; De Wolff and van IJzendoorn, 1997.

  20. Pelaez-Nogueras, Field, Cigales, Gonzalez, and Clasky, 1994.

  21. Fox, Kimmerly, and Schafer, 1991; Goossens and van IJzendoorn, 1990.

  22. Sroufe, Egeland, and Carlson, 1999.

  23. Langlois, Ritter, Casey, and Sawin (1995) found that mothers of cute babies pay their babies more attention and play with them more than do mothers of unattractive babies.

  24. Bruer, 1999; Mitchell, 1980.

  25. Grimshaw, Adelstein, Bryden, and MacKinnon, 1998; Newport, 2002; Senghas, Kita, and Özyürek, 2004.

  26. Schneider-Rosen, Braunwald, Carlson, and Cicchetti, 1985.

  27. Orphanage children: Rutter, O’Connor, and the English and Romanian Adoptees Study Team, 2004. Attachments to other children: A. Freud and Dann, 1951/1967; see Harris, 1998a, pp. 153–158.

  28. E.g., Fahlke, Lorenz, Long, Champoux, Suomi, and Higley, 2000. As I mentioned in note 30 to chapter 3, there is an alternative explanation for these differences. The peer-reared monkeys were bottle-fed. The formula they were given may have been deficient in certain nutrients necessary for optimal brain development.

  29. Bruer, 1999.

  30. Mayberry, 1976; Mayberry, Lock, and Kazmi, 2002; Winitz, Gillespie, and Starcev, 1995.

  31. Winitz et al., 1995.

  32. I am speaking here of children who grow up in neighborhoods where almost everyone is a native-born English speaker. Children who grow up in ethnic neighborhoods, where many of the inhabitants are immigrants from the same country, may speak with a “foreign” accent all their lives or may combine their two languages, if that’s the way the other children in their neighborhood speak. Evidence I presented in The Nurture Assumption (chapter 9) indicates that what matters is how their peers speak, not how the adults speak.

  33. Baron-Cohen, 1999; Baron-Cohen and Staunton, 1994.

  34. The child’s genes: Reiss, 2000. The parent’s personality: Rowe, 2002b.

  35. The best-known case involves hormone replacement therapy for postmenopausal women. Observational studies had found it to be beneficial; a randomized control trial yielded different results. See Kolata, 2003.

  36. J. R. Harris, “Beyond the Nurture Assumption: Testing Hypotheses About the Child’s Environment.” Paper presented at the conference on parenting, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, MD, August 2, 1999.

  37. P. A. Cowan and C. P. Cowan, “What an Intervention Design Reveals About How Parents Affect Their Children’s Academic Achievement and Social Competence.” Paper presented at the conference on parenting, August 2, 1999 (see previous note).

  38. Cowan and Cowan, 2002.

  39. E-mail to P. Cowan, September 24, 1999.

  40. E-mail from P. Cowan, October 9, 1999. (Original was in all capitals.)

  41. E-mail from P. Cowan, October 14, 1999.

  42. Harris, 2000a; Harris, 2000b; Harris, 2002.

  43. Forgatch and DeGarmo, 1999, p. 711.

  44. Forgatch and DeGarmo, 1999, p. 718.

  45. Feinstein, 1985, p. 303.

  46. Wierson and Forehand, 1994, p. 148. Other researchers (e.g., Magnuson and Duncan, 2002; White, Taylor, and Moss, 1992) have also come to the conclusion that interventions aimed at improving parents’ behavior are ineffective in improving children’s adaptation to school. In one report (Zaslow, Tout, Smith, and Moore, 1998) children whose mothers received an intervention actually did worse than those in the control group. Occasional negative outcomes are to be expected if the true effect is zero.

  47. Barkley, Shelton, Crosswait et al., 2000; Grossman, Neckerman, Koepsell et al., 1997.

  48. E.g., Kagan, 1994.

  49. Pinker, 2002.

  50. I thank David M. Goldberg, a cognitive behavioral therapist, for pointing this out to me.

  51. DeRubeis and Crits-Christoph, 1998.

  52. Paris, 2000.

  53. Stone, 1997, p. 39.

  54. Stone, 1997, p. 39.

  55. Watson and Rayner, 1920/2000, p. 315.

  56. B. Harris, 1979; Hulbert, 2003; D. B. Paul and Blumenthal, 1989.

  57. Rilling, 2000.

  58. Watson and Rayner, 1920/2000, p. 317.

  CHAPTER 6: THE MODULAR MIND

  1. Arthur Conan Doyle, “The Five Orange Pips” (1891), in Doyle, 1994, pp. 118–120.

  2. Josephson and Josephson, 1994.

  3. Arthur Conan Doyle, “The Adventure of the Copper Beeches” (1892), in Doyle, 1994, p. 286.

  4. Pinker, 2002.

  5. Pinker, 1997, pp. 27, 30, 31. See also Barkow, Cosmides, and Tooby, 1992.

  6. Matthew Arnold, “Dover Beach,” 1867.

  7. Pinker, 1997, p. 19.

  8. C. S. Harris, 1963, 1965.

  9. Tooby and Cosmides, 1995, p. xii.

  10. Baron-Cohen, 1995, p. 1.

  11. L. Kanner, quoted in Baron-Cohen, 1995, p. 61.

  12. Baron-Cohen, 1995; Frith and Frith, 1999, 2001.

  13. Baron-Cohen credits the idea of “social chess” to the evolutionary psychologist Nicholas Humphrey.

  14. Frith and Frith, 1999.

  15. Baron-Cohen, 1995; Frith and Frith, 1999; Goodall, 1986; Povinelli and Vonk, 2004.

  16. Hare, Brown, Williamson, and Tomasello, 2002.

  17. Baron-Cohen, 1995.

  18. Garcia and Koelling, 1966.

  19. Tooby and Cosmides, 1995, p. xv.

  20. Pinker, 1997, pp. 21–22.

  21. Pinker, 1997, p. 42.

  22. Cosmides, Tooby, and Barkow, 1992, p. 10.

  23. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1989.

  24. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1989.

  25. Pinker, 1994.

  26. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1989, pp. 600–601.

  27. LeVine and LeVine, 1963; McDonald, Sigman, Espinosa, and Neumann, 1994; Rogoff, Mistry, Göncü, and Mosier, 1993.

  28. Chagnon, 1992.

  29. Goodall, 1986.

  30. Dunbar, 1996.

  31. Harris, 1995, p. 470; 1998a, p. 1
32.

  32. Dawkins, 1989; Harris, 1999.

  33. Sherif, Harvey, White, Hood, and Sherif, 1961.

  34. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1995, pp. 260–261; 1989, p. 289.

  35. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1989, 1995.

  36. J. Diamond, 1992, p. 229.

  37. J. Diamond, 1992.

  38. Pinker, 1997, p. 51. See also Pinker, 2002, p. 320.

  39. Eckerman and Didow, 1988.

  40. Edwards, 1992; Fagen, 1993; Goodall, 1986; Napier and Napier, 1985.

  41. Goodall, 1986.

  42. Chagnon, 1992.

  43. Edwards, 1992; Maccoby, 1990; Maccoby and Jacklin, 1987; Schlegel and Barry, 1991; Schofield, 1981; Thorne, 1993.

  44. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1989; Whiting and Edwards, 1988; Goodall, 1986.

  45. Sacks, 1985; M. Wilson and Daly, 1992.

  46. Chagnon, 1992; Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1989.

  47. Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., in a speech he gave in 1895, quoted in Langton, 2003, p. 313.

  48. Buss, 1995.

  49. Judges 12:5–6.

  50. Cosmides and Tooby, 1994, pp. 87–89.

  CHAPTER 7: THE RELATIONSHIP SYSTEM

  1. Arthur Conan Doyle, “The Five Orange Pips” (1891), in Doyle, 1994, p. 125.

  2. Agatha Christie solved this problem in a different way in Murder on the Orient Express. The twelve people who conspired to commit the murder got off scot free.

  3. Pinker, 1997, p. 117.

  4. J. Diamond, 1992; Keeley, 1996.

  5. Joshua 6–12, in the Old Testament.

  6. James, 1890, p. 387.

  7. Pinker, 1999, p. 3; Bloom, 2000.

  8. Pinker, 1999, pp. 22, 14.

  9. Pinker, 1999, p. 197.

  10. Pinker, 1999, p. 249.

  11. Pinker, 1999, pp. 250, 252.

  12. See Pinker, 1994, p. 420.

  13. Lykken and Tellegen, 1993.

  14. Buss, 1994; Lykken and Tellegen, 1993.

  15. Blaise Pascal, quoted in Lykken and Tellegen, 1993, p. 56.

  16. Ridley, 1996.

  17. Hepper, 1988.

  18. Cernoch and Porter, 1985; Fleming, Corter, Surbey, Franks, and Steiner, 1995.

  19. Farah, 1992; Farah, Wilson, Drain, and Tanaka, 1998.

  20. Cohen and Tong, 2001; Dawson, Carver, Meltzoff et al., 2002; Farah, 1992.

  21. Dawson et al., 2002.

  22. Dawson et al., 2002.

  23. Schacter, 2001.

  24. McNeil, 2003.

  25. There are societies in which it is considered rude to use people’s names in conversation, but these societies provide other unambiguous ways of identifying individuals. See Chagnon, 1983.

  26. Schacter, 2001.

  27. Young, Hay, and Ellis, 1985; see also Schacter, 2001.

  28. Fiske, 1992.

  29. Pinker, 1999, p. 3.

  30. Bjorklund and Pellegrini, 2002, p. 193; Bugental, 2000.

  31. Bugental, 2000.

  32. Camazine, Deneubourg, Franks, Sneyd, Theraulaz, and Bonabeau, 2001.

  33. Camazine et al., 2001; Hemelrijk, 2002; Keller, 1999; Seeley, 1997; D. S. Wilson, 2002; E. O. Wilson, 1975.

  34. E. O. Wilson, 1975.

  35. E. O. Wilson, 1975.

  36. Camazine et al., 2001.

  37. Tibbetts, 2002.

  38. Camazine et al., 2001.

  39. E. O. Wilson, 1975, p. 280.

  40. Abramovitch, 1976; Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1989.

  41. Baron-Cohen, 1995; Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1989.

  42. Chance, 1967/1976; Pitcairn, 1976.

  43. Bergman, Beehner, Cheney, and Seyfarth, 2003.

  44. de Waal, 1989, pp. 42–44.

  45. de Waal, 1989, p. 62.

  46. Edwards, 1992, p. 303.

  47. Higher status: Pellegrini and Smith, 1998. Attention structures: Hold, 1976.

  48. Abramovitch, 1976; Hold, 1976.

  49. Abramovitch, Corter, Pepler, and Stanhope, 1986.

  50. There is a limit to the relationship system’s tendency to split rather than lump. If it were a really compulsive splitter, it would not only discriminate Individual A from Individual B: it would also discriminate Individual A in Situation 1 at Time 1 from Individual A in Situation 2 at Time 2 (see Bloom, 2004, pp. 38–39). Though it is capable of doing that if it has to, its initial tendency is to lump together all the information about a given individual.

  51. Parents’ differential behavior and children’s behavior to siblings versus peers: see chapter 4. Father versus boss: see chapter 5. Attraction to identical twin: Lykken and Tellegen, 1993.

  52. Myers, 2002.

  CHAPTER 8: THE SOCIALIZATION SYSTEM

  1. Allik and McCrae, 2004.

  2. McCrae, 2004.

  3. McCrae, Yik, Trapnell, Bond, and Paulhus, 1998.

  4. Minoura, 1992. Haidt (2001) has proposed that moral judgments are acquired in much the same way (through exposure to peers), and over the same age range, as the patterns of social behavior described by Minoura.

  5. Fine, 1986; LeVine and LeVine, 1963.

  6. Fiske and Taylor, 1991; Pinker, 1997; Rosch, 1978.

  7. Langlois and Roggman, 1990.

  8. E.g., Buss, 1994, p. 54.

  9. Faces: Rubenstein, Kalakanis, and Langlois, 1999. Dogs and watches: Halberstadt and Rhodes, 2000.

  10. Kniffin and Wilson, 2004.

  11. Schacter, 1996, p. 137.

  12. Ullman, Corkin, Coppola et al., 1997.

  13. Pinker, 1999; Ullman et al., 1997.

  14. Schacter, 1996; Ullman et al., 1997. Sherry and Schacter (1987) proposed that these two independent memory systems evolved because the functions they perform are incompatible; hence, one system couldn’t do both jobs.

  15. Dot patterns: Knowlton and Squire, 1993. Learning without awareness: Lewicki, Hill, and Czyzewska, 1992. Categorization in babies: Eimas and Quinn, 1994. Kicking: Rovee-Collier, 1993.

  16. Leinbach and Fagot, 1993; Brooks and Lewis, 1976.

  17. Doyle, 1890/1975, pp. 209–210.

  18. Girls can only become nurses: Maccoby and Jacklin, 1974, p. 364. Swim, 1994, has shown that stereotypes of men and women tend to be fairly accurate; her subjects (college students) didn’t overestimate sex differences.

  19. Greenwald and Banaji, 1995; Kunda and Thagard, 1996.

  20. Napolitan and Goethals, 1979.

  21. S. Fiske, quoted in Snibbe, 2003, p. 31.

  22. Rubenstein et al., 1999; J. D. Smith, 2002.

  23. Doligez, Danchin, and Clobert, 2002; Withgott, 2002, p. 1107.

  24. The fact that a single data point has little impact on an average is also the reason why stereotypes are so resistant to change.

  25. Barkow, 1976.

  26. Turner, 1987.

  27. See The Nurture Assumption, pp. 280–281.

  28. Maccoby, 1990; Thorne, 1993.

  29. Hunter-gatherers: Draper, 1997; Draper and Cashdan, 1988; Morelli, 1997. Contemporary Americans: Serbin, Powlishta, and Gulko, 1993.

  30. Genetic influences also play a role in parent-child similarities in adulthood. Adult offspring may use a child-rearing style similar to that of their parents because child-rearing styles are in part a function of heritable personality characteristics (Rowe, 2002b).

  31. Thorne, 1993.

  32. Tajfel, 1970.

  33. Goodall, 1986.

  34. Bradley and Zucker, 1990; Colapinto, 2000; M. Diamond, 1997.

  35. E. O. Wilson, 1975, p. 117.

  36. Grafton, 1998, p. 5.

  37. Parker and Asher, 1993a; Vandell and Hembree, 1994.

  38. Parker and Asher, 1993b; Vandell and Hembree, 1994; Bagwell, Newcomb, and Bukowski, 1998, p. 150.

  39. Olson, Vernon, J. A. Harris, and Jang, 2001; Tesser, 1993.

  40. Bickerton, 1983; Harris, 1998a; Pinker, 2002. I am assuming that the parents immigrated before the children were born or while they were still quite young. People who immigrate in adolescence usually retain a foreign accent (Pinker, 1994). So do autistic children reared by immigrant parents (Baron-Cohe
n, 1999).

  41. Socialized in the play group: Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1989. Children’s games: Opie and Opie, 1969. In the same way: Harris, 1998a.

  42. Glyn, 1970.

  43. C. C. Cranston, “Sons and daughters of the successful,” New York Times, June 27, 2003 (http://www.nytimes.com/2003/ 06/27/opinion/L27NEPO.html); S. S. Lee, quoted in E. Tahmincioglu, “The boss: Digging in to find success,” New York Times, November 28, 2004 (http://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/ 28/business/yourmoney/28boss.html?8dpc).

  44. Schacter, 1996.

  45. Janton, 1993.

  46. Fellman, 1998.

  47. Fellman, 1998; Harshav, 1993.

  48. Neisser, Boodoo, Bouchard et al., 1996.

  49. Garrison Keillor, on his radio show “Prairie Home Companion.”

  50. Shared environment and IQ: Capron and Duyme, 1989; Stoolmiller, 1999. Twins reared together or apart: Bouchard, Lykken, McGue, Segal, and Tellegen, 1990.

  51. Sherif, Harvey, White, Hood, and Sherif, 1961; Zimbardo, 1972/1993.

  52. The other team event in golf is the Ryder Cup competition, held in alternate years. According to C. Brown (2004), “No other event in golf stirs up similar passions.”

  CHAPTER 9: THE STATUS SYSTEM

  1. In an article written before I had all the details of this theory worked out (Harris, 2004b), I referred to the third system as the “behavioral strategy system.” I’ve also considered calling it the “competition system.”

  2. Symons, 1992, p. 153.

  3. Asch, 1952.

  4. Pinker, 1997, p. 42.

  5. Kirkpatrick and Ellis, 2001, p. 432. They were building on the work of Leary and his colleagues (Leary, 1999; Leary, Tambor, Terdal, and Downs, 1995), who first proposed the idea of a sociometer and who gave it that name.

  6. Leary, Cottrell, and Phillips, 2001.

  7. Playground bullies: Olweus, 1995; Juvonen, Graham, and Schuster, 2003. Aggressive adults: Baumeister, Smart, and Boden, 1996.

  8. Kirkpatrick, Waugh, Valencia, and Webster, 2002.

  9. Marsh and Hau, 2003.

  10. Rutter, 1983; Boozer and Cacciola, 2001.

  11. Triandis, 1995; Bonda, 1997.

  12. Bond and Smith, 1996.

  13. Festinger, 1954; Wood, 1989.

  14. Whiting and Edwards, 1988, pp. 231–232.

  15. Maccoby, 1995.

  16. Bjorklund and Pellegrini, 2002.

  17. Pellegrini and Smith, 1998, p. 587.

  18. S. Neill, quoted in Pellegrini and Smith, 1998, p. 588.

  19. E. O. Wilson, 1975.

  20. Omark and Edelman, 1976.

  21. Taylor and Brown, 1988; Myers, 2002.