No Two Alike

by Judith Rich Harris

22. Omark and Edelman, 1976.

  23. Omark and Edelman, 1976; Stipek, 1992.

  24. Child, 1950; Ellis, 1992; Judge and Cable, 2004; Sheldon, 1942.

  25. Judge and Cable, 2004; Persico, Postlewaite, and Silverman, 2004.

  26. Persico et al., 2004

  27. Behavioral differences: M. C. Jones, 1957, p. 116. Small boys: Richman, Gordon, Tegtmeyer, Crouthamel, and Post, 1986; Steinhausen, Dörr, Kannenberg, and Malin, 2000; Weisfeld and Billings, 1988.

  28. M. C. Jones, 1957, p. 122.

  29. Savin-Williams, 1979.

  30. Persico et al., 2004. The rule that the taller candidate gets more votes held true in the 2000 election, when Al Gore, the taller candidate, won the popular vote; but not in 2004, when the majority voted for George W. Bush, the shorter candidate. No one, as far as I know, has compared political candidates on the basis of their height at age sixteen. It would be interesting to see if adolescent height proved a better predictor of election outcomes than adult height.

  31. Personality across the life course: Caspi and Roberts, 2001. Offspring of Japanese executives: Minoura, 1992 (see chapter 8). Accents of immigrants: Pinker, 1994.

  32. Theorists misled by continuities: e.g., Kagan, 1998a. Genetic influences: Caspi and Roberts, 2001.

  33. See Buss, 1994; Cronin, 1991; G. F. Miller, 2000; Pinker, 1997.

  34. Dunbar, 1996, p. 185.

  35. Shakespeare, As You Like It, act 3, scene 5.

  36. Mead, 1934, p. 138.

  37. Fine, 1981, p. 31.

  38. The title of a recent book sums it up nicely: You Have to Say I’m Pretty, You’re My Mother (Pierson and Cohen, 2003).

  39. Cosmides and Tooby, 1994, pp. 93–94.

  40. Langlois, Kalakanis, Rubenstein, Larson, Hallam, and Smoot, 2000.

  41. Fake interview: Jackson and Huston, 1975. Good looks in adulthood: Buss, 1994; Campbell, Kleim, and Olson, 1986; Etcoff, 1999. In childhood: P. A. Adler, Kless, and Adler, 1992.

  42. Baron-Cohen, 1995.

  43. Vertegaal and Ding, 2002.

  44. Conradt and Roper, 2003.

  45. Frith and Frith, 1999.

  46. A further step is now possible. One of the things humans do is to try to present themselves—by adopting certain behaviors, a certain style of dress, and so on—in a way that will cause other people to form a certain picture of them. Self-presentation, as it’s called, is very interesting but beyond the scope of this book. See Goffman, 1959.

  47. de Waal, 1989.

  48. Tooby and Cosmides, 1990; Buss, 1995; Bouchard and Loehlin, 2001; Pinker, 2002.

  49. J. Wong and K. Espina, 2003, July 8. “Iranian twins die after historic surgery.” Reuters (http://dailynews.att.net/).

  50. This incident also demonstrates that calling it a people-information lexicon is somewhat misleading. It’s really more like a computerized database. We don’t have to go through the whole lexicon page by page to find a writer, a redhead, or someone who grew up in Arkansas. We can go directly to the appropriate page or pages, in much the way we use Google to find things on the Web.

  51. Caspi, Moffitt, Morgan et al., 2004.

  52. Tully, Arseneault, Caspi, Moffitt, and Morgan, 2004.

  53. That variation might itself be advantageous, both to the individual and to the group, has often been suggested by evolutionary biologists and psychologists. Some examples: Dall, Houston, and McNamara, 2004; Gadagkar, 2004; J. C. Jones, Myerscough, Graham, and Oldroyd, 2004; E. M. Miller, 1997.

  54. Camazine, Deneubourg, Franks, Sneyd, Theraulaz, and Bonabeau, 2001, p. 8. (Italics omitted.)

  55. Lewcock and Reed, 2003.

  56. Proverbs 6:6.

  57. Hölldobler and Wilson, 1994, p. 107.

  58. Cronin, 1991.

  59. Hölldobler and Wilson, 1994.

  60. Hölldobler and Wilson, 1994.

  61. Gordon, 1999.

  62. Fewell, 2003, p. 1869.

  63. Ridley, 2003; Yan, Yuan, Velculescu, Vogelstein, and Kinzler, 2002.

  64. Whitfield, Cziko, and Robinson, 2003.

  65. Ridley, 1996, p. 41; Ridley, 2003.

  66. Ridley, 1996, pp. 41–42.

  67. A. Smith, 1776/1904, book 1, chapter 2, part 1.

  68. A. Smith, 1776/1904, book 1, chapter 2, part 2.

  69. Allen, 1975, p. 99.

  70. A. Smith, 1776/1904, book 1, chapter 2, part 3.

  CHAPTER 10: DENOUEMENT

  1. Rex Stout, e.g., Murder by the Book, 1951.

  2. Faulkner’s Nobel Prize address, Stockholm, December 10, 1950.

  3. Thomas Jefferson, in a letter to William G. Munford, June 18, 1799. Quoted in Time, July 5, 2004, p. 79.

  4. Pinker, 1994, 1999; Baron-Cohen, 1995.

  5. Two siblings may speak with different accents if they are immigrants and one arrived in childhood and the other in adolescence (see Pinker, 1994, p. 291). They may also speak differently if they differ in sex: in some parts of the world, boys’ groups and girls’ groups adopt somewhat different accents.

  6. The Tragedy of King Richard III, act 1, scene 1.

  7. Belsky, Steinberg, and Draper, 1991.

  8. Chisholm, 1999; Ellis, McFadyen-Ketchum, Dodge, Pettit, and Bates, 1999; Kim and Smith, 1999.

  9. Bjorklund and Pellegrini, 2002, p. 284.

  10. Comings, Muhleman, Johnson, and MacMurray, 2002, p. 1046.

  11. Rowe, 2000, 2002a.

  12. Myers, 2002.

  13. Pinker, 1997.

  14. Dolnick, 1998.

  15. Dencik, 1989, p. 156.

  16. Larkin, “This Be the Verse,” 1989, p. 140 (originally published in 1974).

  17. Crews, 1996; Dolnick, 1998; Esterson, 1993.

  18. Dunbar, 1996, p. 4.

  19. Dolnick, 1998.

  20. Stevens, Golombok, Beveridge, and the ALSPAC Study Team, 2002; Stevenson and Black, 1988; Maccoby and Jacklin, 1974, p. 363.

  21. Kellogg and Kellogg, 1933. See The Nurture Assumption, pp. 98–100.

  22. Humphrey, 2004. See also Pinker, 1997, pp. 131–136.

  23. Sherry and Schacter, 1987.

  24. Insel and Fernald, 2004.

  25. You might be wondering whether a separate sociometer would be needed for each of the hundreds of relationships that people have. I think not. That information could be stored on the appropriate page of the people-information lexicon. The sociometer is needed only to keep the information updated.

  26. Tooby and Cosmides, 1995, p. xii.

  27. Eisenberger, Lieberman, and Williams, 2003.

  28. Farragher, 1998.

  29. Farragher, 1998.

  30. As Tooby and Cosmides (1990) pointed out, sexual recombination scrambles the genes in each generation; it is therefore unlikely that genes that affect physical size and strength and genes that affect personality will remain linked together generation after generation. However, it is possible that some genes may have effects both on physical attributes and on personality.

  31. Rosenthal, 2002.

  32. McDonagh, 2000.

  33. G. F. Miller, quoted in Angier, 2000.

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