The Discovery of Insulin
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in charge of manufacture, 141
search for plant extract, 183–86
and struggle for credit, 194–200
1922 account, 199–200, 217
work criticized, 203–11
assessment of research, 208–211
neglected, 217–8, 222–23
shares Nobel Prize, 231
later career, 234–37
opinion of FGB, 236.
Best, Margaret Mahon, 64–67, 73, 75, 199, 234
Best Institute, 237
Blackwell, C.S., 141–42
Blood sugar: testing, 40–42, 57, 61, 93, 100, 211
limits of tests, 88–89
Blum, F.L., 169
Bouchardat, A., 23
Boyd, Gladys, 161
Breslau, 30, 169
British Diabetic Association, 246
British Drug Houses, Ltd., 167
British Medical Journal, 13, 166, 168, 203, 206
Brown-Séquard, 27
Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 17
Burgess, Blanche, 155
Burroughs Wellcome Ltd., 167, 174–75
Bushman, Lyman, 157
Calgary Canadian Club, 219
Cambrai, 46, 146
Cameron Prize: FGB lecture, 50
to JJRM, 224
Cammidge, P.J., 166, 171
Campbell, Walter R. “Dynamite,” 112–13, 117, 120–28, 130, 143, 153, 157, 186, 193–94, 200, 210–11, 242
Canada: insulin supply, 171
Banting stays in, 215
honours discovery, 216–23
Canadian Diabetes Association, 246
Canadian Army Medical Corps, 46
Canadian Club, Toronto, 212
Candian Medical Association, 221
Journal, 124–25
Canadian National Exhibition, 213
Cancer, 24, 124, 217, 235, 245
Cantoni, 24
Carlson, Anton, 32, 39, 92, 104–5
Carnegie Corporation, 141, 200
Caroline Institute, Stockholm, 17, 225–29
Carrasco-Formiguera, R., 165
Cats, experiments on, 78, 80
Chicago, University of, 31, 92
Choline, 237
Christian Science, 36, 39
Christie Street Military Hospital, Toronto, 46, 135, 143, 153, 156–57, 192
Church, Thomas L., 215, 222
Clarke, Charlotte, 146, 148, 153, 194, 216
Clinical tests. See Insulin
Clowes, George H.A., 104
hears of Toronto work, 96
offers to collaborate, 106, 132
background, 138–39
collaboration with Toronto, 137–41, 146–47, 149–50, 173–80
supports FGB, 193–94
Clutton, Stella, 112, 201
Collip, James Bertram, 12–14, 63–64, 84, 93
meets FGB, 57
interest in work, 85, 97–98
background, 98
joins team, 9799; early experiments, 99–103
assigned to purify extract, 108–110-11
discovers hypoglycemic reaction, 109, 114n
reaction to test on Leonard Thompson, 114
purifies insulin, 116–17
confronts FGB, 117–20
loses secret, 129–30
recovers knack, 133–34
leaves Toronto, 140
making insulin, 156
“discovers” glucokinin, 182–86
contribution emphasized, 197–98, 207
neglected, 219–23
re Nobel Prize, 226, 231–32
later career, 236–38
Columbia University, 210
Coma, diabetic, 22–23, 29, 130, 245
Connaught Anti-Toxin Laboratories, 85, 110, 129, 132, 135, 137–38, 155, 184–85, 241
collaboration with discoverers, 119–20
production problems, 141–53 passim, 159, 171
Coolidge, Calvin, 213
Copenhagen, 226
University of, 167
Corbett, Joseph, 191
Cornell, Beaumont, 241
Crane, J.W., 51
Crile, G.W., 225
Dale, Sir Henry H., 118, 171, 180, 186–87, 234–35
attack on Roberts, 13, 206
visits Toronto, 165–67, 175
opinion of B&B research, 206, 208
Darwin, Charles, 210, 213
Davis, Egerton Y., 160n
Defries, R.D., 147, 149, 179–80, 216
Denmark, 168, 186
Dewitt, Lydia, 28, 31, 53
Diabetes insipidus, 20
Diabetes mellitus: described, 20–21
preinsulin therapy for, 23–44 passim
“starvation” therapy, 35–44
diet and insulin, 160
after insulin, 244–47
Didion, Joan, 236
Diet, and diabetes: 23–44 passim, 160, 244–47
Digestive Ferments Company, 175
Dixon, C.S., 182
Dixon, Mrs. Thomas, 191
Dixon, W.B., 182
DN ratio. See Glucose: Nitrogen ratio
Dogs, experimental: procurement of, 61
#385, 59–60
#386, 60
#386(2), 65
#387, 60–62
#410, 67–70, 79
#406, 67, 70–71, 79
#391, 68
#399, 70n
#409, 70n, 75
#408, 71–73, 79
#92, 75–79, 105
#5, 80
#9, 80–81
“Towser,” 85
#17, 85
#21, 89–90
#26, 90
#27, 92–93, 96, 105
#33 (“Marjorie”), 12, 93, 97, 105–6, 108, 111, 121–22, 181, 207
#23, 97, 100
#35, 97
Doisy, E.A., 180
Drennan, F.M., 92
Drury, E.G., 215, 218
Duct ligation, 6, 31, 170
Banting’s idea, 19–55
and the experiments, 61–71, 80, 86, 89, 91, 203–7
Dudley, Harold, 166–67
Eadie, George, 146–47
Edinburgh, 224–29 passim; University, 224
Edmonton, Alberta: insulin used in, 156, 219
Eli Lilly and Company, 12, 96, 104, 106, 132
collaboration with Toronto, 137–41
background, 138
production of insulin, 146–51, 171–73
exports to U.K., 167, 173–74, 187–88
patenting and brand name issue, 174–81
isoelectric precipitation, 172, 180
plant “insulin,” 183
supplies insulin commercially, 186–87
later history, 240–41, 247
Emmenin, 237
Endocrinology, 89, 237
early history of, 27
Europe: insulin first used in, 165
Ezekiel: quoted, 164–65
Falconer, Sir Robert, 133, 137, 142
on anti-vivisectionists, 192
on credit, 220–21
Farquharson, R.F., 117
Feasby, W.R., 15, 208
Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, 212
Ferguson, G. Howard, 215–17
Fidlar, E., 67, 81
Fish: and insulin, 29, 141, 170–71, 181, 186, 226
Fisher, Albert, 240
Fitzgerald, J.G., 85, 119–20, 133, 137, 195, 222, 230
Flavelle, Sir Joseph, 220
Fletcher, A.A., 122–23, 127, 143, 153, 162, 200, 210–11
Fletcher, Walter, 166–67
Florey, Howard, 224
Forschbach, J., 30–31
France, 169–70
Fraser, Thomas, 29, 170
Gaebler, O.H., 109
Gairns, Sadie, 235
George V, King, 213
Germany, 21, 168–69
Geyelm, H. Rawle, 148–49, 161–62, 191, 193, 232
Gilchrist, Joseph, 48, 102, 122, 135, 143, 157
&
nbsp; Gley, Eugène, 170
Glucokinin, 182–86, 237, 239, 247
Glucose: Nitrogen (G:N) ratio, 62–66, 71, 79, 207
Glycogen formation, 100, 103, 122, 198, 227
Glycosuria, 21, 28, 50
Goldner, Martin, 168–69
Gonzalez, Pere, 165
Gooderham, Colonel Albert, 85, 196–97, 200, 220, 230
Gossett, Elizabeth. See Hughes, Elizabeth
Gossett, William T., 243–44
Grafting, 26, 33, 52–54, 62–63, 89, 209
Graham, Duncan, 110–15, 124, 135, 143, 153, 193–94, 200–1, 236
background, 111
Grange, Maynard, 81
Great War Veterans Associations, 192
Greenaway, Roy, 114–15, 123, 125, 194–95, 201, 214
Hadwen, Walter, 192
Hagedorn, H.C., 168
Hallam, Lillian, 218
Harrower Laboratories, 175
Hart House, 233
Harvard Medical School, 33, 231
Havens, James, Jr., 135–37, 143, 145–46, 150, 153, 159, 162, 176, 194, 210, 246
later life, 243
Havens, James, Sr., 135–37, 145
Hédon, È., 26, 32–33, 52, 57, 60, 71
Hemingway, Ernest, 232
Henderson, Velyien, 81, 84, 120, 135, 198, 200, 216, 233
Heparin, 237
Hepburn, John, 108
Hill, A.V., 228
Hipwell, Fred, 74, 223
Hipwell, Lillian, 74
Historic Sites Board of Canada, 90
Hoffman-La Roche, 31
Hopkins, E.G., 183
Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, 46–47, 112, 135, 161, 242
Hughes, Antoinette, 43–44, 144, 152, 216
Hughes, Charles Evans, 43–44, 177, 216, 220, 244
Hughes, Elizabeth Evans, 166–67, 177, 191, 194, 210, 220, 246
background and diabetes, 43–44, 141
receives insulin, 151–63 passim; later life, 243–44
Hunter, Andrew, 120
Hyperglycemia, 40, 50
Hypoglycemic reaction, 31, 96n, 126, 155
discovered, 109, 111
in clinical tests, 157–58
Iletin (Insulin, Lilly), 146–17, 156, 159, 173–81 passim, 188
Indianapolis. See Eli Lilly and Company
Inge, Paula, 167
Insulin: traditional account of discovery, 12–15
clinical tests of, 102, 112–13, 120–22, 137–67, passim; purified, 116–17
announcement of discovery, 123–28
naming of, 126–27
and roma, 130, 161
price, 173, 88
overused, 173–74, 244
influence on endocrinology, 237
standardization, 122, 157, 172–73, 187
crystalline, 209
protaminc-zine, 240, 216
later history of, 244–47. See also Patents, Royalties
Insulin Committee. See Toronto, University
Internal Secrelions. See Endocrinology, Insulin, Pancreas
International Diabetes Federation, 16
Islets of Langerhans, 25, 27–29, 53, 126, 171
“Isletin,” 72–76, 93, 126, 174. See also Iletin, Insulin
Isoelectric precipitation, 172, 180
Jacobaeus, J.C., 226–28
Jeffrey, Edward, 112
Johns Hopkins, 27, 95, 136, 158
Joslin, Elliott P., 43, 65, 95–96, 104–6, 127, 136, 140, 149, 154, 177, 191, 194, 220, 231, 243, 245
background, 39
first uses insulin, 150, 156, 160–64
later career, 242
Joslin Diabetes Foundation, 242
Journal Club, Physiology, 111
Nov. 14, 1921 meeting, 90–91, 95, 107
Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine, 94, 123, 197, 203
Journal of Metabolic Research, 149, 161
Journal of the History of Medicine, 15
Joyce, animal keeper, 109
Juvenile Diabetes Foundation, 246
Kahn, Otto, 36
Kendall, E.C., 132–33
Ketones, ketonuria, ketosis, 22, 88, 100, 103, 122
Kienast, Margate, 150
King, William Lyon Mackenzie; on Banting and Best, 211
re honours for Banting, 216–23
Kleiner, Israel, 40–12, 68, 79, 88–89, 104–5, 207, 209–10, 239
Knowlton, F.P., 33, 210
Koch, Robert, 189
Kramer, Benjamin, 33, 145, 238
Krogh, August, 167–71, 186–87, 203
nomination of discoverers for Nobel Prize, 225–30, 232
Laguesse, G.E., 25, 28, 92
Langerhans, Paul, 25, 27. See also Islets of Langerhans
Lewis-Benedict blood test, 41, 61
Lcyton, Otto, 216
Ligation. See Duct ligation
Liljestrand, Goran, 226–27
Lilly company. See Eli Lilly and Company
Lilly, Eli, 137–38, 147, 174
Lilly, J.K., 138, 147, 149, 179
Lister, Joseph, Lord, 189, 213
Liver, 25, 100, 103, 109, 237
London, Ontario, 11, 46–58 passim, 74, 78, 231
Longevity experiments, 91, 93–94, 96–97, 105–6, 108, 121–22
McCormick, N. A., 186
MacDonald, J. A., 149
MacDonald, W.J., 241
McGill University, 14, 237
Macleod, John James Rickard: traditional account, 12–17
manuscript history of discovery, 17, 197–98, 217
background, 32–33
early discussions with FGB, 51–58
involvement in early experiments, 59–60, 62–64, 68
reported to, 73–74
reaction and confrontation with FGB, 78–82
continuing experiments, 84–103
role in first paper, 94–95
New Haven presentation, 101–7
organizes team, 108–10
sanctions clinical test, 110
confronted by FGB, 115–16, 129–30
and breakdown of team, 118–20
suggests name, 126
announces discovery, 127–28
and patenting, 131–33, 137–38
helps regain knack, 133–34
work on fish, 170–71, 186
on Collip’s foolishness, 185
and struggle for credit, 193–200
position summarized, 197–98; 201–2
character, 202
response to Roberts, 205
assessment of contribution, 208–11
address in Edinburgh, 1923, 224
and Nobel Prize, 225–33
later career, 234
bitterness of, 234
Macleod, Mrs. J.J.R., 202
Magath, T.B., 109
Mahon. See Best, Margaret M.
Mann, E.G., 109
Marconi, Guglielmo, 217
Marine Biological Laboratories, Woods Hole, 139
Marine Biological Station, St. Andrew’s, 111, 170
“Marjorie”. See Dogs
Mayo Clinic, 82, 132, 162, 183, 237
Meakins, Jonathan, 165
Medical Research Council, U.K., 18, 139, 165–67, 173, 178, 183, 186–87
Meltzer, S.J., 40
Mering, Joseph von, 25–27, 210
Methodist Hospital, Indianapolis, 150
Meyer, J. de, 127
Meyerhoff, Otto, 228
Miller, F.R., 48, 51, 55
Minkowski, Mrs. Oskar, 240
Minkowski, Oskar, 25–28, 30, 210
uses insulin, 168–69
squelches Zuelzer, 238
Minnesota, University of, 132
Minot, George, 237
Moloney, Peter, 134, 146
Morristown, N.J. See Physiatric Institute
Mudge, Miss, 150
Mulock, Sir William, 216–22, 241
Murlin, John R., 33, 41, 145, 176–77, 209–10, 238
Murphy, Emily, 225
Murray, Ian, 15
Myers-Bailey blood test, 41, 61
Myrtillin, 239, 247
National Fish Company, 186
National Institute for Medical Research, U.K., 165–66, 234
Nature, 184–85, 201
Naunyn, Bernard, 24, 26, 39, 168
Needham, Elsie, 161
New Haven conference. See American Physiology Society
Nobel, Alfred, 225
Nobel Committee. See Nobel Prize
Nobel Prize, 12–13, 16–17, 149, 167, 215, 220
award for insulin, 225–33, 237–38
Banting’s reaction to, 229–30
1958 Prize, 246
Noble, E. Clark, 57–58, 64, 66, 108–9, 118, 127, 186, 195, 210–11
Noble, Robert L., 113
Noorden, Carl von, 24, 39, 168
Novo-Nordisk, 168, 241, 247
Oatmeal “cure,” 24, 34
Obesity, epidemic, 246, 247
Ontario government, 189, 242
honours Banting and Best, 215–20
Opie, Eugene, 27, 28
Opium, and diabetes, 23, 38
Orr, jean, 81
Osier, Sir William, 23, 160, 189
Ottawa, 212, 214
Pablu,. 242
Pacific Northwest Medical Association, 219
Palmer, L.C., 146, 148
Pancreas: described, 25
and diabetes, 26–28
foetal, 28–29, 91–93, 97
use of whole, 76–77, 97, 101, 204
fish, 29
“artificial,” 247; See also: Duct ligation, Grafting, Pancreatectomy
Pancreatectomy, 6, 34, 59–60 et seq., 105
Paneréine. See Paulesco
Parathyroid hormone, 237
Parke Davis and Company, 174
Pasteur, Louis, 189, 202, 213
Patents: Zuelzer, 31, 176–77
Paulesco, 126
and quarrels in Toronto, 118–20
decision to patent, 131–33, 137–39
British view of, 166
struggles re, 174–80
and discovery issue, 209–10
later history, 240
Paulesco, Nicolas C, 15, 145, 239
Banting and Best error re, 16–17, 87–89
research of, 42
clinical tests, 125–26
writes Banting, 170
relation to Toronto work, 209–10
and Nobel Prize, 233
Pavy, 24
Penicillin, 130, 133, 245
Pernicious anemia, 237
Petterson, Alfred, 228–29
Pfeiffer, R., 229 PH. See Acid
Philadelphia Capsule Company, 175
Physiatric Institute, 38–39, 43–44, 136, 149–51, 239, 242
Physiology Congress, Eleventh International (1923), 224–29 passim.
Piorry, 23
Plewes, Burns, 243
Pondville State Hospital, Mass., 239
Pons, Francesc, 165
Potter Metabolic Clinic, 140, 190
Pratt, Joseph H., 238
reappraisal of insulin research, 14–15; 207–8
Premarin, 237
Presbyterian Hospital, Chicago, 159
Press coverage, 114–15, 123, 125, 190–92, 212–14
Rabbits: testing on, 29, 99–100, 122, 171, 186–87