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7. See the Berkshire Furnace Ledgers, 145–46, Folder 1, Box 1, GM-0003, and Berkshire Furnace Ledgers, 96–97, Folder 2, Box 1, GM-0004, in Accounts of Iron Forges and Plantations, MG–2, Business Records Collection, 1681–1963, Pennsylvania State Archives; John Heckwelder, A Narrative of the Mission of the United Brethren Among the Delaware and Mohegan Indians, from Its Commencement, in the Year 1740, to the Close of the Year 1808. Comprising All the Remarkable Incidents Which Took Place at Their Missionary Stations During that Period. Interspersed with Anecdotes, Historical Facts, Speeches of Indians, and Other Interesting Matter (Philadelphia: M’Carty and David, 1820), 17–19.
8. Jonathan Edwards, The Life of Rev. David Brainerd, Chiefly Extracted from His Diary (1765; New York: American Tract Society, 1844), 30–32; John Hall, History of the Presbyterian Church in Trenton, N.J. from the First Settlement of the Town (New York: Anson D. F. Randolph, 1859), 116–17; The Testimony of the President, Professors, Tutors and Hebrew Instructor of Harvard College in Cambridge, Against the Reverend Mr. George Whitefield, and His Conduct (Boston: T. Fleet, 1744); entries for 13 November 1749, 2 February 1749, and 10 September 1751, in Minutes of the Trustees of the College, Academy and Charitable Schools of the University of Pennsylvania, vol. 1, 1749–1768 (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1974), x, 1, 3–4, 15.
9. Jon Butler, Becoming America: The Revolution before 1776 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 187–203.
10. A bequest from Thomas Hollis underwrote the cost of Indian education at the Sergeants’ mission. E. Pemberton, A Sermon Preach’d in New-Ark, June 12, 1744, at the Ordination of Mr. David Brainerd, A Missionary among the Indians upon the Borders of the Provinces of New-York, New-Jersey, and Pennsylvania (Boston: Roger and Fowle, 1744), 22–32; Jonathan Edwards, Stockbridge, to the Hon. Thomas Hubbard, esq., Boston, 31 August 1751, Historical Society of Pennsylvania; John Sergeant to William Johnson, 1 July 1749, Joseph Dwight to William Johnson, 13 October 1751, Martin Kellogg to Hendrick, 23 December 1751, in John Sullivan, ed., The Papers of Sir William Johnson (Albany: University of the State of New York, 1921–1965), I:233–39, 353–58; Stephen West, Stockbridge, to Andrew Oliver, Boston, 2 July 1763, Massachusetts Historical Society; William Kellaway, The New England Company, 1649–1776 (London: Longmans, 1961), 272–76; Lion G. Miles, “The Red Man Dispossessed: The Williams Family and the Alienation of Indian Land in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, 1736–1818,” in Alden T. Vaughan, ed., New England Encounters: Indians and Euroamericans, ca. 1600–1850 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1999), 276–97; Colonel Ephraim Williams, last will and testament, 22 July 1755, Archives and Special Collections, Williams College; Leverett Wilson Spring, A History of Williams College (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1917), 22; Robert H. Romer, “Higher Education and Slavery in Western Massachusetts,” Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, Winter 2004.
11. Land-hungry farmers crossed the sound and established new villages on Long Island. Robert Treat and his congregation left New Haven and settled in Newark, New Jersey. Connecticut settlers raised villages east of the Hudson, where they gained the attention of the Dutch, Mohawk, and Anglicans as they trespassed the river. They journeyed up the Connecticut River and constructed settlements in the contested lands that became “New Connecticut,” or Vermont. They also traversed across New York in the aftermath of the Revolution to create a beachhead of Yankee radicalism in the Western Reserve of Ohio. Edith Anna Bailey, “Influences Toward Radicalism in Connecticut, 1754–1775,” Smith College Studies in History V, no. 4 (July 1920): 179–248; Julian Parks Boyd, The Susquehannah Company: Connecticut’s Experiment in Expansion (New Haven: Yale University Press for the Tercentenary Commission of the State of Connecticut, 1935), XXXIV:1–48; Julian P. Boyd, ed., The Susquehannah Company Papers (Wilkes-Barre, PA: Wyoming Historical and Geological Society, 1930), I:lxx–lxxxix; on the resolution of the land claims, see Simeon E. Baldwin, “Connecticut in Pennsylvania,” Papers of the New Haven Colony Historical Society (New Haven: For the Society, 1914), VIII:1–19.
12. Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American Controversy (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1997), 197–98; Fawn McKay Brodie, Thomas Jefferson: An Intimate History (New York: Norton, 1974), 36–38; Anthony F. C. Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians: The Tragic Fate of the First Americans (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 21–40.
13. Albert Cook Myers, The Boy George Washington, Aged 16: His Own Account of an Iroquois Indian Dance, 1748 (Philadelphia: Albert Cook Myers, 1932), 1–17; Louis Knott Koontz, The Virginia Frontier, 1754–1763 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1925), 39–41; Rufus Blanchard, History of Illinois (Chicago: National School Furnishing Company, 1883), 29; Washington Irving, Life of George Washington (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1855), I:47–63; Shelby Little, George Washington (New York: J. J. Little and Ives, 1929), 14; William Addison Phillips, Labor, Land, and Law: A Search for the Missing Wealth of the Working Poor (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1886), 321–24; Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians, 21–40, 50.
14. William Smith, A Discourse Concerning the Conversion of the Heathen Americans, and the Final Propagation of Christianity and the Sciences to the Ends of the Earth (Philadelphia: W. Dunlap, 1760), 14–22; John Brown, On Religious Liberty: A Sermon at St. Paul’s Cathedral, on Sunday the 6th of March, 1763. On Occasion of the Brief for the Establishment of the Colleges of Philadelphia and New-York. Published at the Request of the Managers of the Charity. To which is prefixed An Address to the Principal Inhabitants of the North American Colonies, on Occasion of the Peace (Philadelphia: Andrew Steuart, 1763), 22–23.
15. Benjamin Franklin, “Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind and the Peopling of Countries,” written in Pennsylvania, 1751, in Jared Sparks, ed., The Works of Benjamin Franklin; Containing Several Political and Historical Tracts Not Included in Any Former Edition, and Many Letters Official and Private Not Hitherto Published; with Notes and a Life of the Author by Jared Sparks (Boston: Hilliard, Gray, 1836), II:320–21; Franklin, Narrative of the Late Massacres, 13; Kenny, Peaceable Kingdom Lost, 184–85; Ezra Stiles, The United States Elevated to Glory and Honor: A Sermon, Preached before His Excellency Jonathan Trumbull, Esq. L.L.D., Governor and Commander in Chief, and the Honorable the General Assembly of the State of Connecticut, Convened at Hartford, at the Anniversary Election, May 8th, 1783 (New Haven: Thomas and Samuel Green, 1783), 8–10; Eshleman, Lancaster County Indians, 383–86; Ezra Stiles to Pelatiah Webster, 21 May 1763, in Boyd, ed., Susquehannah Company Papers, II:221–33.
16. Alan Houston, Benjamin Franklin and the Politics of Improvement (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), esp. 201; David Waldstreicher, “Capitalism, Slavery, and Benjamin Franklin’s American Revolution,” in Cathy Mason, ed., The Economy of Early America: Historical Perspectives and New Directions (University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 2006), 202–3; Douglas R. Egerton, Death or Liberty: African Americans and Revolutionary America (New York: Oxford, 2009), 237; Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians, 34–49; Phillips, Labor, Land, and Law, 324.
17. Franklin, “Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind and the Peopling of Countries,” 234; William Smith, A Brief History of the Rise and Progress of the Charitable Scheme, Carrying on by a Society of Noblemen and Gentlemen in London, for the Relief and Instruction of Poor Germans, and Their Descendents, Settled in Pennsylvania, and the Adjacent British Colonies in North-America (Philadelphia: B. Franklin and D. Hall, 1755), esp. 5–7; Hoeveler, Creating the American Mind, 162–65.
18. Joseph Henry Dubbs, History of Franklin and Marshall College (Lancaster, PA: Franklin and Marshall College Alumni Association, 1903), 15–23; A Letter by Dr. Benjamin Rush Describing the Consecration of the German College at Lancaster in June, 1787 (Lancaster, PA: Franklin and Marshall College, 1945), 16; Donald G. Tewksbury, The Founding of American Colleges and Universities Before the Civil War with Particular Reference to the Religious Influences Bearing upon the
College Movement (New York: Teachers College, 1932), 34.
19. The children of the eighteenth century New York City slave traders Moses Levy and David Franks established themselves as prominent merchants and society figures in Philadelphia. They also drifted away from religious orthodoxy. Some even married out of the faith or abandoned Judaism. In 1742 Jacob and Abigail Franks’s daughter, Phila, eloped with Oscar DeLancey, whose older brother was the chief justice of New York colony and the incoming lieutenant governor. Her parents, Orthodox Jews, protested her marriage to a Christian by ceasing contact with her for a year. The Franks’ concerns were affirmed seven years later when Oliver DeLancey joined a group of men in terrorizing a Dutch Jewish immigrant. Blackening their faces, they broke into the man’s home and destroyed his property. Oliver DeLancey then threatened to rape his wife, telling her that she favored Sarah Tappen, the wife of Governor George Clinton, and that he would take her since the First Lady was out of reach. George Clinton was delaying James DeLancey’s appointment as lieutenant governor in retaliation for DeLancey’s decision to support the legislature in a dispute over his salary as governor. Naomi W. Cohen, Jews in Christian America: The Pursuit of Religious Equality (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 11–30; Jacob Katz, From Prejudice to Destruction: Anti-Semitism, 1700–1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980), 23–33; John Watts to Moses Franks, 21 May 1762, The Letter Book of John Watts: Merchant and Councillor of New York, January 1, 1762–December 22, 1765, vol. LXI of The Collections of the New-York Historical Society for the Year 1928 (New York: Printed for the Society, 1928), 28, 59; Morris A. Gutstein, Aaron Lopez and Judah Touro: A Refugee and a Son of a Refugee (New York: Behrman’s Jewish Book House, 1939), 68–70; George Alexander Kohut, “Ezra Stiles and the Jews,” The American Hebrew, serialized from 29 November 1901 to 13 June 1902; Albert Ehrenfried, A Chronicle of Boston Jewry: From the Colonial Settlement to 1900 (Privately printed, 1963), 722–27. The Rhode Island college received gifts from three Jews in South Carolina, including Moses Lindo of Charleston, whose small donation led the governors to officially welcome Jewish students. Moses Lindo to Sampson and Solomon Simson, 17 April 1770, and corporation of the College of Rhode Island to Moses Lindo, 1 January 1771, Rhode Island College Miscellaneous Papers, 1763–1804, Box 1, Folder 1, Brown University. Also, Jacob R. Marcus, The Colonial American Jew, 1492–1776 (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1970), 1243–48; Jacob R. Marcus, Early American Jewry: The Jews of New York, New England, and Canada, 1649–1794 (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1951), I: 64–72.
20. In 1800 Sampson Simson delivered a Hebrew lecture during the Columbia College commencement at St. Paul’s Episcopal Chapel. “Your request to open my mouth in the Hebrew language,” Simson confessed, left me struggling to find a subject worthy of “so great—so respectable an audience.” He chose to offer a history of the oldest Jewish community in North America. Simson later founded Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City. He descended from Nathan Simpson, a merchant who brought more than two hundred enslaved Africans into New York in two of the larger local ventures of the early eighteenth century. In 1822 Aaron Lopez, the grandson of the Newport slave trader, took the doctor of medicine degree at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia.
Jews had traditionally used tutors and religious academies to educate their children. The descendants of the Gratz family established Gratz College in Philadelphia in 1897. Diane King, “Jewish Education in Philadelphia,” in Murray Friedman, ed., Jewish Life in Philadelphia, 1830–1940 (Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1983), 246–48; Ehrenfried, Chronicle of Boston Jewry, 722–27; William D. Carrell, “Biographical List of American College Professors to 1800,” History of Education Quarterly, Autumn 1968, 367; Malcolm H. Stern, First American Jewish Families: 600 Genealogies, 1654–1977 (Cincinnati: American Jewish Archives, 1978), 87, 272; Diane Ashton, Rebecca Gratz: Women and Judaism in Antebellum America (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1997), 38; Sampson Simson, “Some Historical Traits of the American Jews from Their First Settlement in North America,” Delivered in St. Paul’s Church on Wednesday, August 6th, 1800, Anno Mundi 5560, Simson Family Papers, American Jewish Historical Society; Oscar Reiss, The Jews in Colonial America (New York: McFarland, 2004), 174–77; Marcus, Colonial American Jew, III:1198–201; Jacob Katz, Out of the Ghetto: The Social Background of Jewish Emancipation, 1770–1870 (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1998), 42–103.
21. The residents of the village of Amherst in western Massachusetts named their town for the victorious general and sought to attract funding from the Williams’ estate for a college. The move reflected Amherst’s popularity among the colonists, but it was also a strategic step to counter anticipated objections from Harvard to another college in the commonwealth. General Amherst declined the town’s petition for a college and instead sent its residents to appeal to the Massachusetts legislature, where their cause died, largely from the interference of Harvard. Williams College descended from the original endowment. Later the faculty and students at Williams divided over the religious orientation of the school, and the defectors established Amherst College (1821) in Amherst. Williams, last will and testament, 22 July 1755; Spring, History of Williams College, 22; Miles, “Red Man Dispossessed,” 276–97; J. C. Long, Lord Jeffrey Amherst: A Soldier of the King (New York: Macmillan, 1933), 168–78.
22. Last will and testament of George Washington, in Jared Sparks, ed., The Writings of George Washington: Being His Correspondence, Addresses, Messages, and Other Papers, Official and Private, Selected and Published from the Original Manuscripts (Boston: Ferdinand Andrews, 1839), I:569–73.
23. William Smith’s introductory letter, “Concerning the Office and Duties of a Protestant Ministry, Especially During Times of Public Calamity and Danger,” in Thomas Barton, Unanimity and Public Spirit: A Sermon Preached at Carlisle, and Some Other Episcopal Churches, in the Counties of York and Cumberland, Soon after General Braddock’s Defeat (Philadelphia: B. Franklin and D. Hall, 1755); Thomas Barton, The Conduct of the Paxton-Men, Impartially Represented: With Some Remarks on the Narrative (Philadelphia: Andrew Steuart, 1764).
24. Samuel Davies, Religion and Patriotism the Constituents of a Good Soldier: A Sermon Preached to Captain Overton’s Independent Company of Volunteers, Raised in Hanover Country, Virginia, August 17, 1755 (Philadelphia: James Chattin, 1755), 3–5, 22; George Whitefield, A Short Address to Persons of All Denominations, Occasioned by the Alarm of an Intended Invasion (Philadelphia: B. Franklin and D. Hall, 1756); Samuel Finley, The Curse of Meroz: Or, the Danger of Neutrality, in the Cause of God, and Our Country: A Sermon, Preached the 2nd of October, 1757 (Philadelphia: James Chattin, 1757), 5–25; Samuel Richardson to the Rev. Mr. Sam[ue]l Davies, secretary of the Society for Managing the Mission and School among ye Indians, 22 May 1759, Folder 1, William Richardson Davie Papers, 1758–1819, Manuscript Department, Wilson Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Samuel Davies, The Duty of Christians to Propagate Their Religion among Heathens, Earnestly Recommended to the Masters of Negroe Slaves in Virginia. A Sermon Preached in Hanover, January 8, 1757 (London: J. Oliver, 1758), 18–37.
25. William Smith, The Christian Soldier’s Duty; the Lawfulness and Dignity of his Office; and the Importance of the Protestant Cause in the British Colonies, state and explained. A Sermon, Preached April 5, 1757. In Christ-Church, Philadelphia, To the first Battalion of his Majesty’s Royal American Regiment; at the Request of their Colonel and Officers (Philadelphia: James Chattin, 1757), 26–27; entry for 4 February 1758, in Minutes of the Trustees of the College, Academy and Charitable Schools of the University of Pennsylvania, vol. 1, 1749–1768, 93; Samuel Davies, The Curse of Cowardice: A Sermon Preached to the Militia of Hanover County, in Virginia, at a General Muster, May 8, 1758, with a View of the Company for Captain Samuel Meredith (London: J. Buckland, 1758), 11; By the Author of American Fables [William Smith], Indian Songs of Peace with a Proposal, in a Pref
atory Epistle, for Erecting Indian Schools, and a Postscript by the Editor, Introducing Yariza, an Indian Maid’s Letter, to the Principal Ladies of the Province and City of New-York (New York: J. Parker and W. Wayman, 1752), 3–12.
26. John Witherspoon, The Absolute Necessity of Salvation Through Christ: A Sermon, Preached Before the Society in Scotland for the Propagating Christian Knowledge, In the High Church of Edinburgh, On Monday, January 2, 1758. To Which is Subjoined, a Short Account of the Present State of the Society (Edinburgh: W. Miller, 1758), 39–41.
27. Letter from Benjamin Franklin, 12 December 1755, Box 1, #1376, Henley Smith Collection, Library of Congress; New-York Mercury, 1 October 1759; Varnum Lansing Collins, President Witherspoon: A Biography (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1925), 217; David Walker Woods Jr., John Witherspoon (London: Fleming H. Revel, 1906), 185–89; “Minutes of the Synod of New York and Philadelphia,” May 18–25, 1774, in Records of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America (Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication, 1841), 453.
28. Certificate dated 9 May 1765, and affidavit dated 9 May 1765, in Sylvester K. Stevens and Donald H. Kent, eds., The Papers of Col. Henry Bouquet, Series 21651 (Harrisburg: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and Pennsylvania Historical Commission, 1943), 207.
29. Col. Henry Bouquet to Sir Jeffrey Amherst, 25 June 1763, 13 July 1763, 26 July 1763, 27 August 1763, and Sir Jeffrey Amherst to Col. Henry Bouquet, 16 July 1763, 25 September 1763, in Stevens and Kent, eds., Papers of Col. Henry Bouquet, 203, 214–19, 222–23, 250–51, 276–77.