Ebony and Ivy

by Craig Steven Wilder

  30. John Watts to Moses Franks, John Watts to General Robert Monckton, John Watts to James Napier, 23 July 1763 and 11 June 1764, Letter Book of John Watts, 156–58; Gregory Evans Dowd, War Under Heaven: Pontiac, the Indian Nations, and the British Empire (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002); Daniel G. Brinton, The Lenâpé and Their Legends; with the Complete Text and Symbols of the Walam Olum, a New Translation and an Inquiry into Its Authenticity (1884; New York: AMS, 1969), 9–73; Samuel Bard to John Bard, 1 August 1764, Miscellaneous Manuscripts, Health Sciences Library, Archives and Special Collections, Columbia University.

  31. A Lover of This Country [William Smith], An Historical Account of the Expedition Against the Ohio Indians, in the Year MDCCLXIV. Under the Command of Henry Bouquet, Esq. Colonel of Foot and Now Brigadier General in America. Including His Transactions with the Indians, Relative to the Delivery of Their Prisoners, and the Preliminaries of Peace. With an Introductory Account of the Preceding Campaign, and Battle at Bushy-Run. To Which are Annexed Military Papers, Containing Reflections on the War with the Savages; a Method of Forming Frontier Settlements; Some Account of the Indian Country; with a List of Nations, Fighting Men, Towns, Distance, and Different Routes. The Whole with a Map and Copper-Plates (Philadelphia, 1766); Edward Shippen, Lancaster, to son, 13 April 1765, Shippen Family Papers, Cartons 3–4, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress; William Trent’s correspondence and records of claims, in Papers on Indian Losses, 1766–1770, 14–39, collection of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.

  32. Hugh Williamson, “To the Human and Liberal, Friends of Learning, Religion and Public Virtue, in the island of Jamaica. The Memorial and Humble Address of Hugh Williamson, M.D. One of the Trustees of the Academy of New-Ark, in Behalf of That Institution,” Philadelphia Packet, 15 June 1772.

  33. “Additional Memoir of the Mohegans, and of Uncas, Their Ancient Sachem,” Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society (Boston: Hall and Hiller, 1804), IX:89–90; Long, Lord Jeffrey Amherst, 168–78; Samuel Johnson to William Samuel Johnson, 1 February 1762, Samuel Johnson Papers, Letter Books, vol. II, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University; minutes for 10 May 1763, “Minutes of the Governors of King’s College,” vol. 1, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University; W. DeLoss Love, Samson Occom and the Christian Indians of New England (Boston: Pilgrim Press, 1899), 130.

  34. Sir William Johnson to Eleazar Wheelock, 16 October 1762, Sir Jeffrey Amherst to Sir William Johnson, 17 October 1762, Nathaniel Whitaker to Eleazar Wheelock, 1 March 1766, Sir William Johnson to Daniel Burton, 8 October 1766, and Minutes of a Meeting of the Susquehannah Company, 28 December 1768, in Bond, ed., Susquehannah Company Papers, I:9–15, II:175–176, 312, 317–18, III:43–47.

  35. George William Pilcher, ed., The Reverend Samuel Davies Abroad: The Diary of a Journey to England and Scotland (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1967), xi, 6; Hall, History of the Presbyterian Church in Trenton, N.J., 121–23.

  36. Jay had a conflict with the college over the funds, and the issue ended up in the courts. It was eventually settled with the college issuing a statement clearing Jay of all accusations. “The Memorial and Humble Petition of Sir James Jay, Knight, in Behalf of the Govrs of King’s College in the City of New York in America,” in E. B. O’Callahan, ed., Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New-York (Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons, 1853–), VII:643–45; entries for 23 May 1763 and 27 May 1763, in Minutes of the Trustees of the College, Academy and Charitable Schools of the University of Pennsylvania, vol. 1, 1749–1768, 208, 211; Samson Occom, “Journal, Dec. 6, 1743–Nov. 29, 1748,” 77, Samson Occom Diaries, Rauner Library, Dartmouth College; Alden T. Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters: American Indians in Britain, 1500–1776 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 203; Leon Burr Richardson, ed., An Indian Preacher in England: Being Letters and Diaries Relating to the Mission of the Reverend Samson Occom and the Reverend Nathaniel Whitaker to Collect Funds in England for the Benefit of Eleazar Wheelock’s Indian Charity School, from Which Grew Dartmouth College (Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College Publications, 1933), 14–15. On the controversy between Jay and King’s College, see “The Corporation of the Governors of the College &c. of New York against Sir James Jay,” and “The Answer of Sir James Jay Knight Defendant to the Bill of Complaint of the Corporation and the Governors of the College of the Province of New York,” 6 May 1767, C12/855/19, National Archives, United Kingdom; “Power of Attorney to Thomas Maunsel authorizing him to raise funds for King’s college, New York,” May 1774, James Jay Manuscript Collection, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University. On the resolution, see the statement releasing the governors of King’s College from all claims and the governors’ unpublished statement admitting the misunderstanding and confirming Jay’s good standing and name, James Jay Manuscript Collection, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University.

  37. “On savage Lands she showers her Beams divine / Their rugged Passions soften and refine,” wrote Levi Frisbie, a student from Branford, Connecticut, in celebration of the college charter. “The Veil of Darkness droops from off their Minds / And Gospel Truth in awful glory shines.” State of the Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge, in the year 1769 (Edinburgh, 1769), 15–16; Levi Frisbie, Cohos. The Wilderness Shall Blossom as the Rose. To His Excellency John Wentworth, Esq.; Captain-General, Governor and Commander in Chief, in and over His Majesty’s Province of New-Hampshire, On His Grant of a Very Generous Charter of Incorporation of Dartmouth College (New London, CT: Timothy Green, 1769); The Society for Propagating the Gospel Among the Indians and Others in North America, 1787–1887 (Cambridge, MA: University Press, 1887), esp. 33–40.

  38. Eleazar Wheelock to Captain Arent DePeyster, 10 May 1773 (#773318), and Eleazar Wheelock to Captain Arent DePeyster, 15 June 1774 (#774365), Dartmouth College Archives, Rauner Library; Rev. Levi Frisbie, “A Short Account of the Mission of the Reverend Mr. Levi Frisbie, Mr. James Dean, Mr. Thomas Kendall, to the Indians in the Province of Quebec. Being, An Abstract from the Journal of the Former, 1774,” appended to the later editions of Eleazar Wheelock, A Continuation of the Narrative of the Indian Charity School, Begun in Lebanon, in Connecticut; Now Incorporated with Dartmouth-College in Hanover, in the Province of New-Hampshire (Hartford, CT, 1775), 44–54.

  39. Colin G. Calloway, The Western Abenakis of Vermont, 1600–1800: War, Migration, and the Survival of an Indian People (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990), 30–31; Col. Samuel Stevens to Eleazar Wheelock, 13 June 1775 (#775363), Rauner Library, Dartmouth College; Frederick Chase, A History of Dartmouth College and the Town of Hanover, New Hampshire, ed. John K. Lord (Cambridge, MA: John Wilson and Son, 1891), I:300–301.

  40. Dr. Wheelock continued to search for a better deal years after the 1769 chartering of Dartmouth College in New Hampshire. As the colonial army marched through Iroquoia, Wheelock was in correspondence with General Philip Schuyler about securing government support for Indian education at his school, although Native education was now a minor part of his vocation. In 1790 an English court directed that the Brafferton Fund, which had nearly £1,000 immediately available, be used to convert African slaves in the British West Indies. James Manning to Rev. Dr. Samuel Stennett, 5 June 1771, James Manning Papers, 1761–1827, Box 1, Folder 5 (A753), John Hay Library, Brown University; Franklin Bowditch Dexter, ed., The Literary Diary of Ezra Stiles, D.D., LL.D., President of Yale College (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1901), I:364; The Two Charters of the Society for Advancing the Christian Faith in the British West India Islands, and Elsewhere, with the Diocese of Jamaica and of Barbadoes, and the Leeward Island, and in the Mauritius: To Which Is Prefixed, a Short Account of the Charitable Fund (London: Richard Clay, 1836), 5–7; Samuel Eliot Morison, Harvard College in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1936), I:345; Lyon Gardiner Tyler, The College of William and Mary in Virginia: Its History and Work, 1693–1907 (Richmond: Whittet and
Shepperson, 1907), 62; Love, Samson Occom and the Christian Indians of New England, 159; Eleazar Wheelock to General Schuyler, 18 February 1777, in the “Duane Letters,” Publications of the Southern History Association, September 1903, 362–68.

  41. Samuel Johnson to Sir William Johnson, 16 January 1767, Samuel Johnson to William Samuel Johnson, 11 February 1767, remarks recorded on the back of printed publication “At a General Assembly of the Governor and Company of the Colony of Connecticut, holden at Hartford, on the Eighth Day of May A.D. 1766,” Samuel Johnson Papers, Letter Books, vol. III.

  42. Samuel Auchmuty to William Johnson, 14 November 1768, in Sullivan, ed., Papers of Sir William Johnson, VI:455–58; Colin G. Calloway, The Indian History of an American Institution: Native Americans and Dartmouth (Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College Press, 2010), 8, 23–24.

  43. William Johnson to Eleazar Wheelock, 8 August 1766, “To the Clergy of the Church of England Lately Assembled in Convention,” December 1766, Guy Johnson to Myles Cooper, 1 December 1767, William Johnson to William Smith, 18 December 1767, in Sullivan, ed., Papers of Sir William Johnson, V:342–44, 460–62, 837–39, VI:18, VIII:857.

  44. Speech of Captain Onoonghwandekha at the funeral of a Seneca, in Walter Pilkington, ed., The Journals of Samuel Kirkland: 18th-Century Missionary to the Iroquois, Government Agent, Father of Hamilton College (Clinton, NY: Hamilton College Press, 1980), 23–25, 37–38. On the Iroquois dialogue about race, see David J. Silverman, “The Curse of God: An Idea and Its Origins among the Indians of New York’s Revolutionary Frontier,” William and Mary Quarterly, July 2009, 495–534.

  45. “Journal of Lieutenant Thomas Blake,” “Journal of Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Dearborn,” and “Journal of Captain Daniel Livermore,” in Frederick Cook, ed., Journals of the Military Expedition of Major General John Sullivan (Auburn, NY: Knapp, Peck, and Thomson, 1887), 39, 64, 182; Lt. Col. Adam Hubley Jr., “Orderly Book, July to October 1779” (transcribed by Brandon Rapp), Revolutionary War Collection, MG-98, Folder 11, Lancaster County Historical Society, 16, 18; General George Washington to Major-General Sullivan, 31 May 1779, in Sparks, ed., Writings of George Washington, VI:264–67.

  46. Dunmore appointed a resident of Pennsylvania as a Virginia militia captain and ordered him to seize Pittsburgh. Captain John Connolly then occupied the ruins of Fort Pitt, declared Fort Dunmore, and issued orders to the local residents to muster in service of Virginia. He was arrested. In the struggle that followed with Penn, Murray argued that he had an obligation to protect the western frontier from Indian attacks and the charter authority to make policy in the disputed region. He sent surveyors into the area and instigated conflicts with the Lenape and Shawnee to encourage settler violence as a pretense for war. He readied an army of more than two thousand men. Henry Melchior Muhlenberg Richards, The Pennsylvania-German in the Revolutionary War, 1775–1783 (1908; Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing, 1978), 308–38; Glenn F. Williams, Year of the Hangman: George Washington’s Campaign Against the Indians (Westholme, 2006), 19–30; Colin G. Calloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 36–40.

  47. General George Washington to the President of Congress, 29 March 1777, General George Washington to Philip Schuyler, James Duane, and Volkert P. Duow, Commissioners of Indian Affairs, 13 March 1778, in Sparks, ed., Writings of George Washington, IV:369–71, V:273–74; statement of Captain Solomon, Chief of the Stockbridge Indians, 15 January 1776, delivered to Jonathan Edwards, Wyllys Papers, 1633–1829, V:8, Connecticut Historical Society; Nathanael Greene to George Washington, 5 January 1779, in Richard K. Showman et al., eds., The Papers of General Nathanael Greene (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1983), III:144–45; Terry Golway, Washington’s General: Nathanael Greene and the Triumph of the American Revolution (New York: Henry Holt, 2005), 198.

  48. General George Washington to Colonel Daniel Brodhead, 22 March 1779, in Sparks, ed., Writings of George Washington, VI:205–7.

  49. William Shippen Jr., White Plains, New York, 11 August 1778, Shippen Family Papers, Cartons 3–4; Walter Stahr, John Jay: Founding Father (New York: Hambledon, 2005), 347–48; William Livingston to James Duane, 3 November 1779, Publications of the Southern History Association, January 1904, 55–56.

  50. Book of Nehemiah, 4:14; “Journal of Rev. William Rogers, D.D.,” in Cook, ed., Journals of the Military Expedition of Major General John Sullivan, 6n, 103, 246–51, 346n, 385.

  51. General George Washington to the Marquis de Lafayette, 20 October 1779, in Sparks, ed., Writings of George Washington, VI:382–86; Robert F. Dalzell Jr. and Lee Baldwin Dalzell, George Washington’s Mount Vernon: At Home in Revolutionary America (New York: Oxford, 1998), 174; Isabel Thompson Kelsay, Joseph Brant, 1743–1807: Man of Two Worlds (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1984), 279; “Journal of Lieut. Erkuries Beatty,” in Cook, ed., Journals of the Military Expedition of Major General John Sullivan, 17; Barbara Alice Mann, George Washington’s War on Native America (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2008), 27–36.

  On Africans and African Americans living among and with Indians, see Celia E. Naylor, African Cherokees in Indian Territory: From Chattel to Citizens (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008); Laura L. Lovett, “‘African and Cherokee by Choice’: Race and Resistance Under Legalized Segregation,” American Indian Quarterly, Winter/Spring 1998, 203–229; Patrick N. Minges, Slavery in the Cherokee Nation: The Keetoowah Society and the Defining of a People (New York: Routledge, 2003); Tiya Miles, Ties That Bind: The Story of an Afro-Cherokee Family in Slavery and Freedom (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); Claudio Saunt, Black, White, and Indian: Race and the Unmaking of an American Family (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005); Daniel F. Littlefield Jr., Africans and Creeks: From the Colonial Period to the Civil War (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1979); Gary Zellar, African Creeks: Estelvste and the Creek Nation (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007).

  52. “Journal of Major Jeremiah Fogg,” in Cook, ed., Journals of the Military Expedition of Major General John Sullivan, 98; Mrs. A. J. Fogg and J. L. M. Willis, eds., The Fogg Family of America: The Reunions of the Fogg Families, 1902–3–4–5–6 (Eliot, ME: Historical Press, 1907), 81–84, 112.

  53. “Journal of Lieut. Erkuries Beatty,” “Journal of Dr. Jabez Campfield,” and “Journal of Lieut. Charles Nukerck,” in Cook, ed., Journals of the Military Expedition of Major General John Sullivan, 23, 58, 217; John Frelinghuysen Hageman, History of Princeton and Its Institutions (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1878), 221.

  54. “Journal of Lieut. Col. Adam Hubley,” “Journal of Lieut. John Jenkins,” and “Journal of Captain Daniel Livermore,” in Cook, ed., Journals of the Military Expedition of Major General John Sullivan, 151–63, 168–74, 178–88; entry for 16 August 1779, “Journal of William McKendry, July 1778 to January 1780,” Robert Gorham Davis Papers, MS 0330, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University.

  55. “Journal of Major Jeremiah Fogg,” 92–101.

  56. “Journal of Lieut. William Barton,” “Journal of Lieut. Erkuries Beatty,” “Journal of Major John Burrowes,” “Journal of Major Jeremiah Fogg,” “Journal of Serg’t Major George Grant,” “Journal of Lieut. Adam Hubley,” and “Journal of Sergeant Thomas Roberts,” in Cook, ed., Journals of the Military Expedition of Major General John Sullivan, 8, 27–30, 44–45, 95, 112–13, 156–57, 165, 244; entry for 17 August 1779, “Journal of William McKendry.”

  57. Philip Van Cortlandt to Gilbert Van Cortlandt, 22 August 1779, in Jacob Judd, ed., The Revolutionary War Memoir and Selected Correspondence of Philip Van Cortlandt (Tarrytown, NY: Sleepy Hollow Restorations, 1976), 141–43; entries for 8 and 9 November 1779, “Journal of William McKendry”; Philip Schuyler to James Duane, 5 February 1781, Publications of the Southern History Association, September 1904, 384–86.

  58. Stiles, United States Elevated to Glory and Honor, 8–10.

  59. Ibi
d., 5–14.

  60. Laurence M. Hauptman, Conspiracy of Interests: Iroquois Dispossession and the Rise of New York State (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1999).

  61. Pilkington, ed., The Journals of Samuel Kirkland, 189–93, 245–49; Samuel Kirkland to Joseph Brant, 3 January 1792 (#144a), and John Kemp to Samuel Kirkland, 5 February 1794 (#165a), Correspondence of Samuel Kirkland, Samuel Kirkland Papers, College Archives, Burke Library, Hamilton College.

  CHAPTER 6: “ALL STUDENTS & ALL AMERICANS”

  1. The American Philosophical Society was founded in 1743. Anthony F. C. Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians: The Tragic Fate of the First Americans (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1999), 241–48; Stephen E. Ambrose, Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2002), 59–151; James P. Ronda, “‘To Acquire What Knowledge You Can’: Thomas Jefferson as Exploration Patron and Planner,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, September 2006, 409–13; J. Diane Pearson, “Medical Diplomacy and the American Indian: Thomas Jefferson, the Lewis and Clark Expedition, and the Subsequent Effects on American Indian Health and Public Policy,” Wicazo Sa Review, Spring 2004, 105–11.

  2. Joseph Foster, Alumni Oxonienses: The Members of the University of Oxford: Their Parentage, Birthplace, and Year of Birth, with a Record of Their Degrees, vol. IV (Oxford: James Parker, 1891); W. W. Rouse Ball and J. A. Venn, Admissions to Trinity College, Cambridge (London: Macmillan, 1911–13), II:591, III:3; John Venn and J. A. Venn, Alumni Cantabrigienses: A Biographical List of All Known Students, Graduates and Holders of Office at the University of Cambridge, from the Earliest Times to 1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922–54); Peter John Anderson, Roll of Alumni in Arts of the University and King’s College of Aberdeen, 1596–1860 (Aberdeen: Printed for the University, 1900); George Dames Burtchaell et al., eds., Alumni Dublinenses: A Register of the Students, Graduates, Professors and Provosts of Trinity College, in the University of Dublin (London: Williams and Norgate, 1924); John D. Harbreaves, Academe and Empire: Some Overseas Connections of Aberdeen University, 1860–1970 (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1994), v; Edward C. Mead, ed., Genealogical History of the Lee Family of Virginia and Maryland from A.D. 1300 to A.D. 1866 with Notes and Illustrations (New York: Richardson, 1868), 57–58, appendix; W. Innes Addison, ed., The Matriculation Albums of the University of Glasgow from 1728 to 1858 (Glasgow: James Maclehose and Sons, 1913), 2–3.