Alexander the Great Failure

by John D Grainger

  17 Marsden (1969), 58–60, argues that ‘torsion artillery’ was invented in Macedon under Philip.

  18 Diodoros 16.4.2.

  19 Diodoros 16.4.4.

  20 Diodoros 16.4.5–7.

  21 The basic source is Satyros, Life of Philip, quoted by Athenaios 11.557a–b; see Tronson (1984), 116–26.

  22 Satyros in Athenaios 11.557a; Justin 9.8.2 and 13.2.11 preserves some of the insulting descriptions of Philinna, but she is best seen as the daughter of an aristocratic Thessalian family; she was the mother of the later King Philip III Arrhidaios.

  23 Diodoros 16.8.2; Demosthenes 1.8.

  24 Sources here are diffi cult, mainly later allusions by Athenian orators, uninterested in accuracy: Griffi th in Macedonia, 2.236–44, with the sources there noted; see also Ellis (1976), 63–4.

  25 Tod, GHI, 158; Diodoros 16.2.3–4.

  26 Diodoros 16.8.6–7; Griffi th in Macedonia 2.246–50.

  27 Diodoros 16.8.5; Griffi th in Macedonia 2.244–6, 250–1.

  28 Diodoros 16.22.3; Tod, GHI 157; Plutarch, Alexander 3.

  29 Griffi th in Macedonia 2.251, suggests that Lyppeios was dealt with by Philip later.

  30 Griffi th in Macedonia 2.252, thinks Philip led his army on a march along the Thracian coast; there is no evidence for this.

  31 Diodoros 16.34.4–5; Justin 7.6.13–16; Strabo 7, frag. 22.

  32 Diodoros 16.31.6, for the fall of Methone in 354, the loan of troops is argued to be in 355

  by Griffi th in Macedonia 2.220–30 and Ellis (1976), 74.

  33 Collart (1937).

  34 Strabo 7, frag. 37; Skymnos, Geographi Graeci Minores 1.221; Griffi th in Macedonia 2.363.

  35 Tod, GHI 159.

  Notes to Chapter 3: The defence of the kingdom, 354–346 bc

  1 Griffi th, in Macedonia 2.650–1; Bosworth (1971), 93–105.

  2 Dismissed by Hatzopoulos (1996), 327f, unconvincingly.

  3 Hammond

  in

  Macedonia 2.156–7.

  4 Ps.-Aristotle,

  Oeconomikos 2.22; Perdikkas’ revenue from customs rose from 20 to 40 talents as a result of Kallistratos’ innovations, a pathetically small amount for such a huge state, and it implies an economy which was virtually undeveloped.

  N O T E S T O PA G E S 3 4 – 4 2

  199

  5 Griffi th in Macedonia 2.392–5.

  6 Theagenes,

  FGrH 74 F 3; Hammond (1989), 157.

  7 Stephanus of Byzantion, sv Herakleia.

  8 Diodoros 8.44; Strabo 7, frag. 36; Pliny, NH 4.41.

  9 The palace (Ps. – Skylax 66), and the royal treasury (Strabo 7, frag. 20) were there; even before Philip’s reign it was the kingdom’s largest city (Xenophon, Hellenica 5.2.13).

  10 Justin 8.2.7–6.2; perhaps from Theopompos of Chios, who lived at Philip’s court in the 340s.

  11 e.g. Hatzopoulos (1996), vol. 2, nos 56–7, and 73 (Beroia).

  12 Diodoros 16.35.1.

  13 Diodoros 16.34.1; Demosthenes 21.183.

  14 Polyainos 4.2.2.

  15 Diodoros 16.35.1.

  16 Diodoros 16.35.2; Polyainos, 2.38.2.

  17 Diodoros 16.35.3–6; Justin 8.2.3–4; Griffi th in Macedonia 2.273–7.

  18 Diodoros 16.37.3; 38.1–2; Westlake (1935), chs 7 and 8; Griffi th in Macedonia 2.278–9 and 285–95.

  19 Theopompos, FGrH 115, F 81; Westlake (1935), 179–80.

  20 Diodoros 16.38.1.

  21 Theopompos, FGrH 115, F 249; Diodoros 16.34.3; Demosthenes 23.14.

  22 Demosthenes 3.4; Griffi th in Macedonia 2.281–5.

  23 Olynthos is referred to as ‘our friend’ by Demosthenes in 352, so 353 probably saw the diplomatic change: Demosthenes 23.107–9; Griffi th in Macedonia, 2.296–8.

  24 A very obscure issue, evidenced by allusion and later references: cf. Griffi th in Macedonia 2.298–304; Cawkwell (1962), 122–40.

  25 Buckler (1996), 77–97.

  26 Isocrates, Philip.

  27 Ellis (1976), 92, makes Pammenes’ expedition the inspiration for Philip; see also Fredericksmeyer (1982), 85–98.

  28 cf. Griffi th in Macedonia 2.484–9.

  29 Demosthenes 1.13; Justin 8.6.5–6; Hammond (1967), 543–4.

  30 Diodoros 16.52.9 and 53.2.

  31 Philochoros, FGrH 328, F 49.

  32 Plutarch, Phokion 12–14; Aeschines 3.84–6; Demosthenes 21.162 and 39.16; Cawkwell (1962); Brunt (1969), 245–65; Carter (1971), 418–29.

  33 Diodoros 16.52.9; one of the former tyrants, Peitholaos, returned, and was given Athenian citizenship (Aristotle, Rhetoric 1.1410a).

  34 Diodoros 16.52.9.

  35 Diodoros 16.53.2–3.

  36 Aeschines 2.12–4.

  37 Ibid.

  38 Athens was waking up to Philip’s power, notably because of Olynthos: cf. Ellis and Milns (1970).

  39 Strabo 7 F 55; Demosthenes 18.70.

  200

  N O T E S T O PA G E S 4 2 – 5 2

  40 Demosthenes 19. 163.

  41 Diodoros 16.58.4–6; Pausanias 10.2.5–3.2.

  42 Aeschines 2.79; Demosthenes 19.10.

  43 Aeschines 2.132–5.

  44 Aeschines 2.18.

  45 Aeschines 2.82–4.

  46 Ellis (1976), 114–16.

  47 Aeschines 2.137.

  48 The actual terms have to be extracted from the later speeches of Athenian orators: Griffi th in Macedonia 2.338–41.

  49 Markle (1974).

  50 Aeschines 2.137.

  51 Diodoros 16.59.3.

  52 Aeschines 2.141.

  53 Diodoros 6.60; Justin 8.5; Aeschines 2.142–4; Demosthenes 19.64–5.

  54 Aeschines 2.140–2; Pausanias 10.2.2; Griffi th in Macedonia 2.347, note 1, believes that

  ‘Philip’s decision … decided everything’, but it seems that discussion was open.

  Notes to Chapter 4: Cold war, 346–340 bc

  1 Aeschines 2.139; Demosthenes 19.86–7.

  2 Diodoros 16.69.7; Hammond (1966), 73–85.

  3 Demosthenes 19.320; Westlake (1935), 190–1.

  4 Griffi th in Macedonia 2.523–7; Westlake (1935), 191–2.

  5 Westlake (1935), 201–4; an intermediate organization, a decadarchy, may have existed between 344 and 342; Griffi th in Macedonia 2.528–53 argued it never existed; even if it did, it was clearly ephemeral.

  6 Diodoros 16.72.1; Justin 8.6.4–5.

  7 [Demosthenes]

  7.32.

  8 Demosthenes 9.34 and 4.24–6.

  9 Demosthenes

  9.34.

  10 Demosthenes 6.15–25.

  11 Diodoros 16.44.1; Demosthenes 7 and 18, 136; Cawkwell (1978), 123–5.

  12 Elis, Pausanaias 4.28.4 and 5.4.9; Demosthenes 19.294–60; Megara, Plutarch, Phokion 15.

  13 Demosthenes 19.87; Brunt, 1969.

  14 Philochoros, FGrH 328 F 158.

  15 Cook (1983), 223–4; Olmstead (1948), 436–41.

  16 Diodoros 16.44.1–2; Philochoros, FGrH 328 F 157.

  17 Diodoros 16.52.2.

  18 Diodoros 16.71.1–2; Griffi th in Macedonia 2.554–66; Hammond (1994), 122–5; Ellis (1976), 166–8.

  19 Satyrus in Athenaios 11.557a–b.

  20 Diodoros 16.8.6.

  N O T E S T O PA G E S 5 2 – 6 3

  201

  21 Michel (1957), 389–91.

  22 Demosthenes 8.50, 9.35, 10.60.

  23 [Demosthenes] 7.2; Griffi th in Macedonia 2.510–12.

  24 [Demosthenes] 7.2.

  25 Brunt (1969).

  26 Aeschines 3.95–9; Griffi th in Macedonia 2.549, note 3.

  27 Demosthenes 12.12–15; Hypereides F 6–6; Plutarch, Vita X Or. 850a.

  28 Aristotle, Rhetoric 2.1386 a 13.

  29 Justin 9.1.2.

  30 [Demosthenes] 12.3.

  31 [Demosthenes] 12.16.

  32 Demosthenes 12 (probably not wholly genuine).

  33 Diodoros 16.74.1–76.3, 77.1; Justin 9.1.2–7.

  34 Details are lost, but Philip’s lett
er (Demosthenes 12) virtually acknowledged war’s inevitability, and the Assembly clearly agreed. The precise moment of declaration is irrelevant: the confl ict had been developing for years, and actual fi ghting had been going on for months.

  Notes to Chapter 5: The conquest of Greece, 340–334 bc

  1 Frontinus,

  Stratagems, 1.4.13.

  2 Diodoros 16.77.3 is suggestive; Ellis (1976), 184–5; Griffi th in Macedonia 2.580.

  3 Justin 9.2.1–16; Frontinus, Stratagems 2.8.14.

  4 Diodoros 16.60.2; see Ellis (1976), 123.

  5 Demosthenes 6.22; Didymus, In Demosthenis 11.26–47; Philochoros, FGrH 328 F 56.6.

  6 I have seriously shortened this issue; the main source is Aeschines 3; Griffi th in Macedonia 2.585–7 and 717–19 has an exemplary full account.

  7 Aeschines 3.129; Demosthenes 18.151–2.

  8 Diodoros 16.84.2; Demosthenes 18.169–71.

  9 Demosthenes 18.213–14; Aeschines 3.124–44; Justin 9.35; Diodoros 16.85.1; Plutarch, Demosthenes 18.3–4.

  10 Aeschines 3.146.

  11 Demosthenes 18.156–8.

  12 Polyainos 4.2.8.

  13 Diodoros 16.86.1–6; Polyainos, 4.2.2; Justin 9.3.9–10; Hammond (1938), 186–218; Pritchett (1958), 307–11.

  14 Justin 9.4.6–7; Diodoros 16.87.3; Pausanias 9.18 and 9.65; Roebuck (1948), 73–91; Larsen (1968), 175–8.

  15 SVA 402; Diodoros 18.56.7; Plutarch, Alexander 28.2; Pausanias 1.5.3 and 1.34.1; cf.

  Roebuck (1948).

  16 Plutarch, Aratos 23 (Corinth); Diodoros 17.3.3 (Ambrakia).

  17 Polybios 9.28.7; Pausanias 8.35.4; Livy 38.34.3; Theopompos FGrH 115 F 328; cf. Roebuck (1948); Griffi th in Macedonia 2.615–18.

  202

  N O T E S T O PA G E S 6 3 – 7 2

  18 SVA 403; Tod, GHI 177; Diodoros 16.69.3; Justin 9.5.2–4; Larsen (1968); Roebuck (1948); Griffi th in Macedonia 2.623–8.

  19 Justin 9.5.5; Diodoros 16.89.2–3.

  20 Diodoros 17.5.3–6.2; Cook (1983), 224–5; Olmstead (1948), 489–90.

  21 Athenaios 13.557d (Satyros); Plutarch, Alexander 9.3–12.

  22 Diodoros 16.93.6.

  23 Diodoros 16.91.2; Justin 9.5.8–9.

  24 Tod GHI 191 (Eresos); Arrian 1.17.10–11 (Ephesos).

  25 Pausanias 5.20.9; Griffi th in Macedonia 2.393–694.

  26 Fredericksmeyer (1982), 85–98.

  27 Aelian Aristides 38.715D.

  28 Diodoros 16.93.1–94.4; Justin 9.6; Aristotle, Politics, 5.1311b.

  29 Bosworth (1971).

  30 The main conspiracy theorist is Badian (1963), 244–50. All biographies of Philip and Alexander consider the matter, all coming to different conclusions.

  31 Ps. – Kallisthenes 1.26.

  32 Hammond in Macedonia 3.1–9.

  33 Justin 9.7.12; Pausanias 8.7.7; one may ignore the gory details (probably invented later) and yet accept Olympias’ guilt.

  34 Diodoros 17.5.1–2; Curtius 7.13; Justin 12.6.14.

  35 Justin 12.6.14; Alexander as a force for terror: Green (1974), ch. 4; Bosworth (1988), 26–8.

  36 Diodoros 17.4.1; Justin 11.3.1–2.

  37 SVA 403 II; Diodoros 17.4.2–6; Justin 11.2.5; Plutarch, Alexander 14.1.

  38 Arrian, 1.1.4.6–5.5; Diodoros 17.8.1.

  39 Arrian 1.5.6–6.11.

  40 Fuller (1958), 219–29.

  41 Aeschines 3.239; Dinarchos 1.10 and 18.

  42 Justin 11.2.8.

  43 Diodoros 17.8.5–6.

  44 Arrian 1.7.4–7; Diodoros 17.8.2; Hammond (1981), 57–62.

  45 Diodoros 17.8.3–12.5; Arrian 1.7.7–8.7.

  46 Arrian 1.9.9; Justin 11.3.8–10.

  47 Diodoros 17.17.3–3; Green (1974), 156–9 tabulates the army clearly; see also Bosworth (1988), 259–66.

  48 Diodoros 17.16.2.

  49 Arrian 1.12.8–10; numbers are only approximate.

  50 Arrian 1.11.6–12.1; Justin 11.5.10–12; Diodoros 17.16.4; Plutarch, Alexander 15.

  51 Arrian 1.12.9–10; Diodoros 17.18.2.

  52 Arrian 1.14.1–16.7; Diodoros 17.19.1–21.6; Justin 11.6.8–13; Plutarch, Alexander 16; the imprecision of the ancient sources hamper reconstruction: Bosworth (1988), 40–4; Fuller (1958), 147–54; Green (1974), 174–80; and Hammond (1981), 70–6 are all careful, and all different.

  53 Arrian 1.17.1–2.

  54 Sardis: Arrian 1.17.3; Diodoros 17.21.7; Plutarch, Alexander 17.1; Asander: Arrian 1.17.7.

  N O T E S T O PA G E S 7 2 – 7 9

  203

  55 Arrian 1.17.10–12.

  56 Diodoros 17.22.1–4; Plutarch, Alexander 17.1; Arrian 1.18.3–19.6.

  57 Arrian 1.20.1; Diodoros 22.5–22.1.

  58 Arrian 1.20.5–23.5; Diodoros 17.24.4–25.5.

  59 Badian (1966), 37–69, argues that they were not enrolled in the league, and certainly the absence of evidence encourages that view; Bosworth (1988), 250–8, agrees, but also notes that the cities’ situation was ‘anomalous’.

  Notes to Chapter 6: The great campaign, 334–325 bc

  1 Diodoros 17.24.2–3; Arrian 1.23.8; only to Karia, not Lykia.

  2 Sardis,

  Arrian

  1.17.7.

  3 Cawkwell (2005), 1–29, notes that no Greek shows any knowledge of Persia beyond Susa.

  4 Arrian 1.24.4 and 26.1–7; Nearchos, Arrian 3.6.6.

  5 Arrian 1.29.1–5 and 2.1–3; Curtius 3.1.1–8.

  6 Arrian

  2.4.1–2.

  7 Arrian 2.4.2; he may be Abistamenes (Plutarch, Alexander 18.3).

  8 Diodoros 17.27.5–6, 29.1–3 and 31.3–4; Arrian 1.19.8 and 2.1.1–3; Tod, GHI 192; Badian (1966).

  9 Arrian 2.7.3–11.10; Diodoros 17.33.1–34.7; Justin 11.9.1–10; see Fuller (1958), 154–62, especially.

  10 Diodoros 17.48.2–5; Curtius 4.7.1–2, 27–33; Arrian 2.13.2–3.

  11 Curtius 4.1.34–40; Burn (1952).

  12 Arrian 2.20.1 (Arados) and 3 (Cyprus).

  13 Curtius 4.1.35; Anson (1988), 471–7; Briant (1973), 47–71; Billows (1990).

  14 Arrian 2.15.24.5; Curtius 4.2.1–4.21; Plutarch, Alexander 24–5; Diodoros 17.40.2–46.5; Justin 11.10.10–14.

  15 First offer: Arrian, 2.14.1–9; Curtius 4.1.7–14; second offer: Arrian 2.25.2–3; Curtius 5.1–3; the sources vary; not all moderns accept these exchanges as authentic.

  16 Arrian 2.25.4–27.7; Curtius 4.5.10–6.31; Plutarch, Alexander 25; Diodoros 17.48.7–49.1; Romane (1988).

  17 Soli: Curtius 3.7.2; near Issos: Curtius 3.7.7.

  18 A diffi cult area: Bosworth (1974).

  19 Arrian 2.20.5; Curtius 4.3.11.

  20 Administration: Arrian 3.5.2–7; Curtius 4.8.5; Alexandria: Arrian 3.1.5–22; Diodoros 17.52.1–5; Strabo 17.1.1.10; Vitruvius, 2 praef; Ammon: Arrian 3.4.4–5; Curtius 4.7.5–32; Callisthenes F 15; Strabo 15.1.35; Plutarch, Alexander 27.3; Diodoros 17.49.1–51.4.

  21 Diodoros 17.62.5–6.

  22 Arrian 2.13.5–6; Curtius 4.1. 39; Diodoros 17.48.1 and 62.6–63.4; Justin 12.1.4–11; Plutarch, Agis 3.

  23 Arrian 3.8.1–15.6; Curtius 4.12.1–16.33; Justin 11.13–14; Diodoros 17.55.3–61.3; Plutarch, Alexander 31–3; Marsden (1964).

  204

  N O T E S T O PA G E S 7 9 – 8 5

  24 Engels (1979), app. 5.

  25 Susa: Diodoros 17.66.1–2; Justin 11.14.8; Plutarch, Alexander 36.1; Arrian 3.16.6–7; Curtius 5.2.8–10; Persepolis: Diodoros 17.71.1–72.6; Curtius 5.6.9.

  26 Arrian 3.16.10.

  27 Diodoros 17.63.1.

  28 Arrian 3.6.2–6; Curtius 4.8.15.

  29 Diodoros 17.63.1–3; Plutarch, Agis 3; Curtius 6.1.1–16; Justin 12.1.4–11.

  30 Arrian 3.19.5–8; Curtius 5.7.12.

  31 Curtius 6.1.20.

  32 Arrian 3.21.1–10; Justin 11.15.1–15; Curtius 5.9.2–12.25, an account informed by Curtius’

  acquaintanceship with Roman conspiracies and emperors.

  33 The fi rst was Mazaios, reappointed as satrap of Babylon.

  34 Philo
tas and Parmenion: Arrian 3.26–27; Curtius 6.7.1–7.2.32; Diodoros 17.77–83; Plutarch, Alexander 48–9; Justin 17.5.1–8; Strabo 724; Kleitos: Arrian 4.8.1–9; Curtius 8.19–21; Plutarch, Alexander 51; Kallisthenes: Arrian 4.14; Plutarch, Alexander 55; Curtius 8.6.24; Badian (2000); Cartledge (2004), 67–75; Worthington (2003), 273–95, has a collection of extracts on the subject.

  35 Alexander Lynkestis, for example: Curtius 8.1.5–9; Diodoros 17.80.2. All through the campaign Alexander met or captured Greeks and Macedonians who had joined the Persian side, or were envoys from Greek cities of the league to the Great King. His campaign in Asia was in part a continuation of the wars he and his father had fought in Greece.

  36 Ehrenburg (1938), 52–61.

  37 Arrian 3.25.3; Curtius 6.6.12–13.

  38 Arrian bk 4; Curtius bk 7; Bosworth (1996); Holt (1989) and (2005). Tarn (1951) is dated and overtaken by later work, but worth reading nonetheless for its style and imagination.

  39 Holt (2005), 107, suggests up to 120,000; of course, we cannot know.

  40 11,200 infantry and 600 cavalry recruited in Arachosia, 19,400 infantry and 2,600 cavalry at Baktra: Curtius 7.3.4–5 and 10.11–12; Arrian 5.11.3 and 4.16.7; garrison: Arrian 4.22.3.

  41 Fraser (1996).

  42 Vogelsang (1990).

  43 Arrian 5.25.1–29.3; Curtius 9.2.11–3.19; Plutarch, Alexander, 62; Diodoros 17.94.5.

  44 Arrian 6.27.3; Curtius 9.10.19.

  45 Arrian 6.9.11; Curtius 9.4.26–5.19; Plutarch, Alexander, 63; Diodoros 17.98.3–99.4; Justin 12.9.5–11; Plutarch, Moralia 327B, 343D–344D.

  46 Arrian wrote an account of the Indian campaign, part surviving as Indica; Narain (1965), 155–65, is a useful corrective to Alexander-centred accounts.

  47 Nearchos: Arrian, Indica 20–42; Leonnatos: Curtius 9.10.2 and 19; Arrian, Indica 23.5–6.

  48 The journey: Arrian 6.22–6; Curtius 9.10.8–16; Plutarch, Alexander, 66; Diodoros 17.105.3–106.3; Arrian 5.25.1–29.3; the celebration: Curtius 9.10.23–9; Plutarch, Alexander, 67 Diodoros 17.106.1; Arrian 6.28.1–2.

  49 Lock (1977), 91–107.

  N O T E S T O PA G E S 8 8 – 9 2

  205

  Notes to Chapter 7: The united empire, 325–319 bc

  1 Curtius 9.10.21 and 29.

  2 Arrian 6.27.3–5; Curtius 10.1.1–8.

  3 Arrian 7.4.1; Plutarch, Alexander 68.7.

  4 For views on Alexander’s policy in Iran, see Bosworth (1980) and Hamilton (1987), 467–86.

  5 Curtius 9.10.7; Arrian 6.27.3 and 6.

  6 Arrian 4.18.3; Curtius 8.3.17.

  7 Arrian 6.29.2 and 30.1–2.

  8 Curtius