Jungle of Snakes

by James R. Arnold

  5. Brian McAllister Linn, The Philippine War: 1899–1902 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000), 27.

  6. J. F. Bell to AG, 2nd Div, 8th Army Corps, January 21, 1900, in U. S. War Department, Annual Reports of the War Department: Report of the Lieutenant-General Commanding the Army, vol. 1, part 8 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1900), 331.

  7. Leon Wolff, Little Brown Brother: How the United States Purchased and Pacified the Philippines (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1991), 289.

  8. Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall: Education of a General, 1880–1939 (New York: Viking Press, 1963), 52–53.

  9. William McKinley, Third Annual Message to Congress, December 5, 1899, The American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/ index.php?pid=29540.

  10. Robinson, The Philippines, 376.

  11. “Orders to the Detachments,” November 16, 1899, in Taylor, Philippine Insurrection, 5:142–43.

  12. Taylor, Philippine Insurrection, 2:345.

  13. “To the Chiefs of Guerrillas,” November 15, 1900, in Taylor, Philippine Insurrection, 5:113.

  14. Brian McAllister Linn, The U.S. Army and Counterinsurgency in the Philippine War, 1899–1902 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 125.

  15. Ibid., 37.

  Chapter 2: Chastising the Insurrectos

  1. Edwin Segerstrom to mother and sister, March 20, 1899, in Frank Harper, ed., Just Outside of Manila: Letters from Members of the First Colorado Regiment in the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (Denver: Colorado Historical Society, 1992), 72.

  2. John R. M. Taylor, The Philippine Insurrection Against the United States (Pasay City, Philippines: Eugenio Lopez Foundation, 1971–73), 2:304–5.

  3. Affairs in the Philippine Islands, Hearings Before the Committee on the Philippines of the United States Senate, 57th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Doc. 331 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1902), part 2, 1928.

  4. William Thaddeus Sexton, Soldiers in the Philippines (Washington, D.C.: The Infantry Journal, 1944), 212.

  5. MacArthur to Adjutant-General, September 19, 1900, in U.S. Army Adjutant-General’s Office, Correspondence Relating to the War with Spain, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1993), 2:1211. My count is based on the names of killed and wounded provided in MacArthur’s telegram. Note that Brian Linn states that casualties were twenty-one killed and twenty-three wounded in his The U.S. Army and Counterinsurgency, 138.

  6. U.S. War Department, Annual Reports of the War Department: Report of the Lieutenant-General Commanding the Army (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1900), part 5, 60.

  7. John Jordan to mother, January 10, 1900, John Jordan Papers, U.S. Army Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pennsylvania.

  8. Albert G. Robinson, The Philippines: The War and the People; A Record of Personal Observations and Experiences (New York: McClure, Phillips & Co., 1901), 379.

  9. Ibid., 384–85.

  10. “To the Military Central and Zone Commanders of National Militia of the Township of Ligao,” August 24, 1900, in Taylor, Philippine Insurrection, 5:228.

  11. Glenn Anthony May, Battle for Batangas: A Philippine Province at War (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), 161.

  12. General Order 202, June 27, 1900, in Taylor, Philippine Insurrection, 5:104.

  13. Caílles to Estilla, August 6, 1900, in Taylor, Philippine Insurrection, 5:227.

  14. See telegram from Associated Press reporter Martin in U.S. Army Adjutant-Generals Office, Correspondence Relating to the War with Spain, 2:1220.

  15. Henry F. Pringle, The Life and Times of William Howard Taft (New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1939), 1:160–61.

  16. Ibid., 1:170.

  17. For Taft’s comments on this, see his testimony in Affairs in the Philippine Islands, Hearings Before the Committee on the Philippines of the United States Senate, 57th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Doc. 331 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1902), part 1, 64.

  18. Robinson, The Philippines, 355.

  19. Stuart Creighton Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation”: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982), 167, 296–97.

  20. Robinson, The Philippines, 384.

  Chapter 3: The War Is Won Again

  1. John Morgan Gates, “Schoolbooks and Krags”: The United States Army in the Philippines, 1898–1902 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1973), 169.

  2. “Report of Maj. Gen. Lloyd Wheaton,” in U.S. War Department, Annual Reports of the War Department: Report of the Lieutenant-General Commanding the Army and Department Commanders, 57th Congress, 2nd Session, House Document No. 2 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1902), 9:231.

  3. Affairs in the Philippine Islands, Hearings Before the Committee on the Philippines of the United States Senate, 57th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Doc. 331 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1902), part 2, 1942. MacArthur tried to wiggle away from this conclusion when questioned by Senator Culberson.

  4. “Investigation into the Methods Adopted by the Insurgents for Organizing and Maintaining a Guerrilla Force,” in U.S. War Department, Annual Reports of the War Department: Report of the Lieutenant-General Commanding the Army, vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1900), part 5, 257–64.

  5. Ibid., 262.

  6. Ibid., 263.

  7. Gates, “Schoolbooks and Krags,” 173.

  8. Batson to wife, November 9, 1900, box 3, Matthew Batson Papers, U.S. Army Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pennsylvania.

  9. Batson to wife, October 29, 1899, box 3, Matthew Batson Papers.

  10. U.S. War Department, Annual Reports of the War Department, vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1901), part 4, 90.

  11. U.S. War Department, Annual Reports of the War Department, vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1901), part 4, 93. MacArthur’s chief of staff, Thomas H. Barry, penned the actual words.

  12. The full proclamation is reprinted in U.S. War Department, Annual Reports of the War Department, vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1901), part 4, 91–92.

  13. Glenn Anthony May, Battle for Batangas: A Philippine Province at War (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), 229.

  14. Stuart Creighton Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation”: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903 (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1982), 163.

  15. Editorial, New York Times, January 2, 1901.

  16. Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation,” 153.

  17. See article 3 of Aguinaldo’s proclamation of January 17, 1901, in John R. M. Taylor, The Philippine Insurrection Against the United States (Pasay City, Philippines: Eugenio Lopez Foundation, 1971–73), 5:137.

  18. Batson to wife, November 17, 1899, box 3, Matthew Batson Papers.

  19. “The Flight and Wanderings of Emilio Aguinaldo, from His Abandonment of Bayambang Until His Capture in Palanan,” diary entry of February 7, 1900 in Taylor, Philippine Insurrection, 5:38.

  20. Ibid., 5:27.

  21. February 10, 1900, in ibid., 5:28.

  22. March 29, 1900, in ibid., 5:54.

  23. Emilio Aguinaldo, A Second Look at America (New York: Robert Speller &Sons, 1957), 126.

  24. Douglas MacArthur, Reminiscences: General of the Army Douglas MacArthur (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964), 26.

  Chapter 4: The Policy of Destruction

  1. Brian McAllister Linn, The Philippine War: 1899–1902 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000), 217.

  2. Henry F. Pringle, The Life and Times of William Howard Taft (New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1939), 1:212.

  3. Chaffee’s telegraphic report of the attack is in Chaffee to Adjutant-General, May 5, 1902, in U.S. Army Adjutant-General’s Office, Correspondence Relating to the War with Spain (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1993), 2:1295–6.

  4. Pringle, Life
and Times, 1:212.

  5. See Chaffee to Adjutant-General, May 5, 1902, in U.S. Army Adjudant-General’s Office, Correspondence Relating to the War with Spain, 2:1336.

  6. “To all station commanders,” December 24, 1901, in U.S. War Department, Annual Reports of the War Department: Report of the Lieutenant-General Commanding the Army and Department Commanders, vol. 9, 57th Congress, 2nd Session, House Document No. 2 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1902), 208.

  7. See Corbin to Chaffee, April 16, 1902, in U.S. Army Adjudant-General’s Office, Correspondence Relating to the War with Spain, 2:1328.

  8. Bell also held the rank of major of volunteers in 1898.

  9. Albert G. Robinson, The Philippines: The War and the People; A Record of Personal Observations and Experiences (New York: McClure, Phillips & Co., 1901), 361.

  10. Robert D. Ramsey III, A Masterpiece of Counterguerrilla Warfare: B. G. J. Franklin Bell in the Philippines, 1901–1902 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute Press, 2007), 3.

  11. William Henry Scott, Ilocano Responses to American Aggression 1900–1901 (Quezon City, Philippines: New Day Publishers, 1986), 143.

  12. Glenn Anthony May, Battle for Batangas: A Philippine Province at War (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), 247.

  13. U.S. War Department, Annual Reports of the War Department: Report of the Lieutenant-General Commanding the Army and Department Commanders, 57th Congress, 1st Session, House Document No. 2 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1902), part 8, 389.

  14. Telegraphic Circular No. 3, Batangas, December 9, 1901, James Franklin Bell Papers, U.S. Army Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pennsylvania.

  15. “To all station commanders,” Batangas, December 15, 1901, in Affairs in the Philippine Islands, Hearings Before the Committee on the Philippines of the United States Senate, 57th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Doc. 331 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1902), part 2, 1614.

  16. Andrew J. Birtle, U.S. Army Counterinsurgency and Contingency Operations Doctrine 1860–1941 (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1998), 131.

  17. Stuart Creighton Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation”: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982), 209.

  18. U.S. War Department, Annual Reports of the War Department: Report of the Lieutenant-General Commanding the Army and Department Commanders, vol. 9, 57th Congress, 2nd Session, House Document No. 2 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1902), 233.

  19. “To all station commanders,” Batangas, December 9, 1901, in Affairs in the Philippine Islands, part 2, 1607, 1609.

  20. Confidential Telegraphic Circular No. 18, Batangas, December 23, 1901, James Franklin Bell Papers.

  21. Telegraphic Circular No. 19, Batangas, December 24, 1901, James Franklin Bell Papers.

  22. Telegraphic Circular No. 22, Batangas, December 24, 1901, James Franklin Bell Papers.

  23. “Bell to Wheaton,” December 27, 1901, in Affairs in the Philippine Islands, part 2, 1690–92.

  24. Telegraphic Circular No. 12, Batangas, December 21, 1901, James Franklin Bell Papers.

  25. May, Battle for Batangas, 254.

  26. Miguel Malvar, “The Reasons for My Change of Attitude,” April 16, 1902, in John R. M. Taylor, The Philippine Insurrection Against the United States (Pasay City, Philippines: Eugenio Lopez Foundation, 1971–73), 5:358.

  27. Reynaldo C. Ileto, “The Philippine-American War: Friendship and Forgetting,” in Angel Velasco Shaw and Luis H. Francia, eds., Vestiges of War: The Philippine-American War and the Aftermath of an Imperial Dream 1899–1999 (New York: New York University Press, 2002), 17.

  28. Ibid., 18.

  29. Ibid.

  Chapter 5: Why the Americans Won

  1. U.S. War Department, Annual Reports of the War Department: Report of the Lieutenant-General Commanding the Army and Department Commanders, vol. 9, 57th Congress, 2nd Session, House Document No. 2 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1902), 284–85.

  2. Brian McAllister Linn, The Philippine War: 1899–1902 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000), 304.

  3. Telegraphic Circular No. 32, January 26, 1902, James Franklin Bell Papers, U.S. Army Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pennsylvania.

  4. General Orders No. 66, “To the Army of the United States,” July 4, 1902, in U.S. Army Adjutant-General’s Office, Correspondence Relating to the War with Spain, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1993), 2:1352–53.

  5. James H. Blount, The American Occupation of the Philippines, 1898–1912 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1913), 393.

  6. Corbin to Chaffee, April 16, 1902, in U.S. Army Adjudant-General’s Office, Correspondence Relating to the War with Spain, 2:1328.

  7. Linn, The Philippine War, 223.

  8. Glenn Anthony May, Battle for Batangas: A Philippine Province at War (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), 147.

  9. Leon Wolff, Little Brown Brother: How the United States Purchased and Pacified the Philippines (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1991), 305.

  10. Affairs in the Philippine Islands, Hearings Before the Committee on the Philippines of the United States Senate, 57th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Doc. 331 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1902), part 2, 1927.

  11. Linn, The Philippine War, 221.

  12. Glenn A. May, “Filipino Resistance to American Occupation: Batangas, 1899–1902,” Pacific Historical Review 52, 4 (November 1983): 553.

  13. Stuart Creighton Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation”: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982), 260.

  14. Glenn A. May, “Why the United States Won the Philippine-American War, 1899–1902,” Pacific Historical Review 52, 4 (November 1983): 367.

  15. Affairs in the Philippine Islands, part 1, 667.

  16. Ibid., part 1, 411–12.

  17. Among other activities, Abu Sayyaf reportedly provided Ramzi Youssef, who planned the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed with sanctuary on Jolo.

  18. Albert G. Robinson, The Philippines: The War and the People; A Record of Personal Observations and Experiences (New York: McClure, Phillips & Co., 1901), 404–5.

  19. E. J. McClernand, “Our Philippine Problem,” Journal of the Military Service Institution of the United States 29, 114 (November 1901): 327–29.

  Chapter 6: Terror on All Saints’ Day

  1. Michael K. Clark, Algeria in Turmoil: A History of the Rebellion (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959), 121.

  2. Alistair Horne, A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954–1962 (Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1985), 27.

  3. Clark, Algeria in Turmoil, 119.

  4. Horne, A Savage War, 98–99.

  5. Ibid., 545.

  6. Ibid., 107.

  7. Ibid., 110.

  8. Ibid., 174.

  9. Jacques Soustelle, L’espérance trahie, 1958–1961 (Paris: Editions de l’Alma, 1962), 91.

  Chapter 7: Terror Without Limits

  1. Michael K. Clark, Algeria in Turmoil: A History of the Rebellion (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959), 131.

  2. University of San Francisco, “Algerian War Reading,” http://www.usfca.edu/fac_staff/webberm/algeria.

  3. Alistair Horne, A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954–1962 (Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1985), 123.

  4. Gil Merom, How Democracies Lose Small Wars: State, Society, and the Failures of France in Algeria, Israel in Lebanon, and the United States in Vietnam (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 101.

  5. Horne, A Savage War, 160.

  6. David Galula, Pacification in Algeria: 1956–1958 (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2006), 23.

  7. Martin S. Alexander and J. F. V. Keiger, eds., France and the Algerian War 1954–62: Strategy, Operations and Diplomacy (London: Frank Cass, 2002), 5.

  8. Peter Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare from I
ndochina to Algeria: The Analysis of a political and Military Doctrine (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1964), 50.

  9. Paret provides the numbers for 1959: 1,287 officers, 661 NCOs, 2,921 civilian specialists. See ibid., 50.

  10. Ibid., 30.

  11. Ibid., 8.

  12. Ibid., 30.

  13. Frédéric Guelton, “The French Army ‘Centre for Training and Preparation in Counter-Guerrilla Warfare’ (CIPCG) at Arzew,” in Alexander and Keiger, France and the Algerian War, 42.