Nomonhan, 1939: The Red Army's Victory That Shaped World War II
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Moses, Larry. “Soviet-Japanese Confrontation in Outer-Mongolia: The Battle of Nomonhan-Khalkhin-Gol.” Journal of Asian History 1 (1967).
Novikov, M. V. “U Ozera Khasan” (“At Lake Khasan”). Voprosy Istorii (August 1968).
Pratt, Lawrence. “The Anglo-American Naval Conversations on the Far East of January 1938.” International Affairs (October 1971).
Roberts, Geoffrey. “The Soviet Decision for a Pact with Germany.” Soviet Studies 44, no. 1 (1992).
Ruslanov, P. (pseudonym?). “Marshal Zhukov.” Russian Review 15 (July 1956).
Sevost’yanov, G. N. “Voennoe i Diplomaticheskoe Porazhenie Yaponii v Periode Sobytiy u Reki Khalkhin-Gol” (“The Military and Diplomatic Defeat of Japan in the Period of the Events at the Khalkhin-Gol River”). Voprosy Istorii (August 1957).
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Unpublished Doctoral Dissertations
Goldman, Stuart D. Soviet-Japanese Conflict and the Outbreak of World War II. Washington, D.C. Georgetown University, 1970.
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Thornton, Sandra. The Soviet Union and Japan, 1939–1941. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University, 1964.
INDEX
Aizawa Saburo, 201n48
Alekseenko, Ilya, 137, 140, 143–44
Amur River, 17–18
Amur River incident, 29–34, 55, 60, 83, 104–7, 179–80, 191n28, 191n33, 207n33
Araki Sadao, 17, 25
Astakhov, Georgie, 52, 54, 155, 156, 159
Austria, 41, 44
Azuma Yaozo, 2, 90, 93–94, 96–98, 100, 199n40
Bain Tsagan, 115, 116, 119–20
Bain Tumen, 108–9
Beck, Josef, 48, 50, 154, 193n75
belly-talk (hara ge), 195n26
biological warfare, 133–34
Blyukher, Vasily, 58, 61, 67, 74, 192n42
border dispute principles (Order 1488), 1, 84–88, 89, 90, 91, 181, 198n32
Bykov, A. E., 90–91, 94–95, 96, 99
Chamberlain, Neville: Anglo-Soviet alliance, 50–52, 156–57, 158–59, 174;
Comintern propaganda efforts against, 47–48; conscription proposal, 24;
Czechoslovakia, German invasion and occupation of, 49–50; Czechoslovakia policy of, 41; foreign and defense policy of, 38, 41; German policy of, 50; Munich Conference, 45; Poland independence, guarantee of, 50–51, 53; Russia, attitude toward, 50–51, 52, 157; Stalin, negotiations with, 154
Changkufeng Hill: plan to rectify border, 84–85; responsibility for, 77, 83–84; significance of, 56
Changkufeng incident/Lake Khasan battle: battle events, 65–72, 83, 180–82; boundary lines, 56–58; boundary negotiations, 59, 61, 69, 71–73, 195nn37–38; casualties of, 66, 71, 73–74; cease-fire negotiations, 72–73, 129; emperor’s opposition to operation, 61–63, 66–67; events leading to start of, 56–65; German-Japanese military-political negotiations following, 53; as limited war, 180; map of, 57; meanings of, 73–77, 196n51; Nomonhan incident, link to, 87; press coverage of, 70; Soviet firmness toward Japan and, 27; Soviet occupation of hill, 59–61
Chiang Kai-shek, 10, 22, 25, 27–28, 34, 36, 38, 55, 74, 77, 168
China: border location between Russia and, 17–18; expansion interests of Japan and Russia and, 7–9; Japan, bullying of, 9; nationalism in, 10–11; Russia, relations with, 25, 27–28
China War: air attacks by Japan during, 103; Amur River incident and, 29–34; Japan policy of Western democracies during, 37–43; Japan’s focus on, 168; as quagmire for Japan, 35; Soviet aid to China during, 34–36, 55; Soviet relations with Japan and, 33–36, 53, 180; termination of, 60; Wuhan, capture of, 55
Chinese Communist Party (CCP), 25, 27–28, 191n17
Chinese Eastern Railway (CER), 10–11, 17, 165, 189n3, 189n14
Chosen Army, 59–63, 64–72, 73–75, 196n51
communism and Communist parties: anti-Communist activities and alliances, 10, 12, 23, 25; militarization measures, fight against, 24; Soviet control of foreign Communist parties, 21–22, 190nn2–3
Communist International/Comintern: Anti-Commintern Pact, 36–37, 40, 52–53, 164; antifascist propaganda efforts, 47–48; China War and relations between Soviets and Japan, 36; establishment of, 190n2; instructions to foreign Communist parties from, 22; leadership of, 21–22, 190n3; popular front/united front policy, 23–27, 44; Seventh Congress of, 23–25; Soviet control of foreign Communist parties through, 21–22, 190nn2–3
Czechoslovakia, 41, 44–45, 49–50, 77, 156
Daladier, Edouard, 23, 47–48
depression and economic crisis, 11, 12–13
Draganov, Parvan, 156
fascism, 23–24, 26, 46–48, 193n62
Feklenko, Nikolai, 90, 102
Finland, 22, 50, 51, 159, 167, 208n1
France: Anglo-Soviet alliance, 155, 156–59, 160, 162–63, 164, 174, 205n13; antimilitarist and antinational defense campaign in, 24, 190n6; anti-Soviet policies of, 43; Czechoslovakia defense, treaty with, 41, 44, 156; foreign and defense policy of, 40–41; four-power pact, formation of, 45–46; four-power talks, 50; German threat toward, 40–41; Great Britain, relations with, 40–41, 42; Japan, threat from, 36; Munich Conference, 45; nonaggression pact objectives, 164; nonaggression Pact terms and, 3, 188n11; nonaggression treaty between Soviets and, 22; peace bloc against fascism, 46–48, 193n62; Poland defense, pledge of, 156, 164; rioting and coup in, 23; Russia, cooperation with, 131; Russia, mutual assistance pact with, 23, 42, 43, 192n55, 192n57; Spanish policy of, 40–41, 44; Stalin, negotiations with, 154; threat to during Spanish Civil War, 26; World War I and Asian interests of, 9
Fui Heights, 104–7, 112–29, 140, 143–45, 152, 199n9
gekokujo (rule from below), 14–16, 62, 84, 105, 107, 111, 129–30, 168
Germany: Anti-Commintern Pact, 36–37, 52–53, 164; British policy toward, 41; Czechoslovakia, invasion and occupation of, 49–50, 156; Czechoslovakia, threat to from, 41, 44–45; four-power pact, formation of, 45–46; France, threat toward, 40–41; Japan, alliance with, 43, 52–54, 124, 150, 156, 169, 194n88; multi-front war, avoidance of, 53–54; Munich Conference, 45, 77; Nazism, 3, 12, 22; Pact of Steel, 155–56; panzer units, effective use of, 123; Poland, expansion into and invasion of, 53, 131, 151, 156, 158, 163, 205n11; Poland, relations with, 48, 193n70; Red Army, cooperation with, 190n1; remilitarization of Rhineland, 40; Rome-Berlin-Tokyo alliance, 37, 54, 155, 165, 169, 171, 205n22; Russia, negotiations with, 48–49; Russia, relations with, 42–43, 52, 131, 193n83; Russia, threat to from, 23, 25, 45–46, 192n62; Russia, trade with, 49, 155; Russia invasion by, 165, 171–72; Russian fight against, 208n1; Russian war, Japanese joining of, 171–72, 174–76, 178; Soviet-Japanese conflict, attitude toward, 124; Spain, aid to from, 25, 26–27, 36; Stalin, negotiations with, 154; surrender of, 183; two-front war concerns, 51, 136, 160–61; Versailles treaty injustices toward, 39–40; World War I and Asian interests of, 9. See also Nonaggression Pact, German-Soviet
Great Britain: Anglo-Soviet alliance, negotiations toward, 50–52, 54, 155, 156–59, 160, 162–63, 164, 174, 205n13; anti-Soviet policies of, 43; Czechoslovakia policy of, 41, 44; foreign and defense policy of, 38–39, 40–43; four-power pact, formation of, 45–46; four-power talks, 50, 193n75; France, relations with, 40–41, 42; Japan, relations with, 36, 37–39; Labour Party, conversion to militant anti-fascism by, 26; Munich Conference, 45; peace bloc against fascism, 46–48; Poland defense, pledge of, 156, 163, 164; rearmament of, 38; Russia, attitude toward, 50–52; Russia, relations with, 41–42, 131; Spanish policy of, 40–41, 44; Stalin, negotia
tions with, 154; Tientsin, confrontation over, 103–4, 169; World War I and Asian interests of, 9
Great Terror, 28–29, 31, 33, 43, 55–56, 122
Halha River: biological warfare, 133–34; border location, 1, 90, 165; border patrol missions, 83, 87–89; boundary line disputes, 1–2, 80–81; bridge destruction by Japanese, 125–26; bridge over and Fui Heights attack, 104–7, 112–29, 199n9; bridge over, defense of, 94; bridge-building by Soviets, 125; bridgehead at, expansion of, 102–3, 135; Japanese aggression near, escalation of, 102; Kwantung Army crossing plans, 99; map of, 78; swimming across, 120; withdrawal to east bank of, 120. See also Nomonhan incident/Khalkhin Gol conflict
Hamaguchi Osachi, 13, 14, 189n12
Hattori Takushiro: border dispute principles, 86; Halha River bridge and Fui Heights attack, 104–5, 106, 114, 119; Kwantung Army, transfer from, 151; Pacific War launch, advocate for, 173; Pacific War operations, 173, 204n125; Plan Eight-B operational plan, 83; Soviet air attacks, response to, 104; Tsuji, relationship with, 87
Heihsiatzu Island, 32, 191n33
Hitler, Adolf: anti-German Anglo-Soviet alliance, potential reaction to, 51–52; British policy toward, 41; Chamberlain and Daladier as emissaries of, 47–48; chancellor appointment, 11; as counter-force against Soviets, 40; Czechoslovakia, German invasion and occupation of, 49–50; German-Japanese military-political pact, 53–54; Munich Conference, 45; nonaggression pact negotiations, 136, 159–64; nonaggression pact objectives, 164; opposition to regime of, 26; Pact of Steel, 155–56; Poland invasion by, events leading to, 3; preventive war against, 25; Soviet-Japanese conflict, attitude toward, 124; Spain, aid to from, 25, 26–27; Stalin, negotiations with, 48–49, 154; Versailles treaty injustices toward Germany, 39–40
Holsten River, 88, 94, 96, 106, 114, 125, 140, 146–47, 152
Imperial Japanese Army: education and training of officers, 15–16; organization of divisions, 91, 105; policymaking in, 15–16; samurai-class men, dominance of, 14; spiritual battle doctrine, 121–22, 201n48; war with Soviets, proposal of, 17. See also Chosen Army; Kwantung Army
Inada Masazumi: Changkufeng incident, 60–61, 63, 65, 66–67, 68, 70, 76, 180; Kwantung Army officers, replacement of, 131; Kwantung Army stand-down order, 151; Nomonhan area, guidelines to patrol, 82; Nomonhan incident and policy decisions by Japan, 172–73; Nomonhan incident, assessment of, 99–100; Nomonhan incident, Essentials for settlement of, 131; Tamsag Bulak, air strike against, 109–10, 200n24; Tsuji border dispute principles, 87; Tsuji removal, attempt at, 110
Ioki Eiichiro, 143, 144–45, 152
Isogai Rensuke, 86–87, 99, 104–5, 108, 130–31, 151
Itagaki Seishiro, 61–62, 107, 110
Italy: Anti-Commintern Pact, 37, 40; British policy toward, 41; four-power pact, formation of, 45–46; Munich Conference, 45; Pact of Steel, 155–56; Rome-Berlin-Tokyo alliance, 37, 54, 155, 165, 169, 171, 205n22; Spain, aid to from, 25, 26–27, 36
Japan: Anti-Commintern Pact, 36–37, 52–53, 164; anti-Russian German-Japanese pact, 53–54, 194n88; assassination of government officials in, 14, 189n12; atomic bomb use against, 183–84; boundary-line and cease-fire agreements, 151; CCP conflict with, 25, 27–28, 191n17; China, bullying of by, 9; China operations and weakening of threat from, 33; Chinese nationalism and Soviet-Japanese relations, 10–11; communism, hostility toward, 10; democracy in, 13, 189n9; depression and economic crisis in, 12–13; diplomatic isolation of, 149; expansion interests of, 7–9; Germany, alliance with, 43, 52–54, 124, 150, 156, 169, 194n88; German-Soviet nonaggression pact objectives, 164; Great Britain, relations with, 37–39; Manchuria invasion and occupation by, 11, 16, 18, 20; modernization of, 7, 15; nationalism and militarism in, 11, 13–16, 189n12; Nomonhan incident and policy decisions by, 5, 167–74, 177, 178, 206n6, 206n11; nonaggression pact proposal by Russia, 17; nonaggression Pact terms and, 3, 188n11; northward expansion of, 168–69, 174–76; oil and gasoline embargo, 169–70; peace treaty with Soviet Union and Russia, 185; political corruption in, 13; preventive war against Soviets, proposal for, 17; prisoners of war, 185; Rome-Berlin-Tokyo alliance, 37, 54, 155, 165, 169, 171, 205n22; Russia, border disputes with, 9, 16–20, 56–58; Russia, China War, and relations with, 33–36, 53, 180; Russia, cooperation with, 8–9; Russia, deterioration of relations with, 16–20; Russia, joining German war against, 171–72, 174–76, 178; Russia, neutrality pact with, 165, 171–72; Russia, relations with, 10, 162, 164–65, 188n2; Russia, threat to from, 23, 25; Russian fight against, 183–85, 208n1; Russian-Chinese relations and, 25, 27–28; Siberian expedition and Russian Civil War intervention, 9–10, 17; southward expansion of, 169–73, 174–76; Soviet appeasement of, 16–17, 27, 34; strategic advantage of, 20; surrender of, 184–85; Tientsin, confrontation over, 103–4, 169; Twenty-One Demands, 9; two-front war concerns, 33; United States, decision to go to war against, 5, 168–74, 206n6; United States, relations with, 39; Western democracies, relations with, 37–43
Kanchatzu Island, 32, 33, 56
Kanchuerhmiao, 94, 98, 103, 124–25
Khalkhin Gol. See Nomonhan incident/Khalkhin Gol conflict
Khasan, Lake, 56. See also Changkufeng incident/Lake Khasan battle
Kobayashi Koichi, 141–42, 143
Komatsubara Michitaro: appearance and character of, 81; artillery barrage operations, 128–29; border dispute principles (Order 1488), 89; death of, 152; encirclement of by Soviets, 145–46, 148; Halha River bridge and Fui Heights attack, 105, 106, 114, 115–17, 119, 120, 122; Halha River, withdrawal to east bank of, 120; Manchukuo, Soviet air raids in, 103, 199n5; night combat operations, 124–25, 126, 127; Nomonhan area, guidelines to patrol, 82; Nomonhan August operations, 133, 139, 141, 143, 145; Nomonhan border dispute mission, 90; Nomonhan incident, 1–3, 88, 91, 92–93, 94, 98, 100, 198n32; reinforcements for, 132–33; retirement of, 152; Special Services Agency leadership role, 81, 197n6; suicide of officers and soldiers, 148, 152
Konoye Fumimaro, 61, 77, 173, 175–76, 194n88
Korea, 7–9, 17–18, 56–58, 74
Kushchev, A. M., 90, 109
Kwantung Army: air combat operations, 140–41; armaments and weaponry of, 2, 92, 117–18, 126–29; artillery barrage and counterbattery firing, 127–29; attitudes toward, 135–36, 181–82; border dispute principles (Order 1488), 1, 84–88, 89, 90, 91, 181, 198n32; boundary-line and cease-fire agreements, 151; bridge-building and river-crossing materials and supplies for, 99, 106–7, 119; China War and relations between Soviets and Japan, 33–34, 36; confidence of, 105–6; defensive operations, weaknesses in, 135–36; defensive positions, 133, 134; encirclement of by Soviets, 145–48; establishment of, 8; force strength of, 2, 3, 55, 105–6; government influence over activities of, 76–77, 161; gun crews and defense of guns by, 146; intelligence operations and information, 136, 137; interference with activities of, 131; Japan, attack on, 184; Manchukuo defense, orders for, 110–11; military doctrine and offensive efforts, 134; morale in, 31, 59–60, 62–63, 83–84, 85, 111; night combat operations, 124–26, 127; Nomonhan border dispute mission, 90; officers in, replacement of, 131; operational constraints and combat operation limitations, 110–11; organization of divisions, 91, 105; Plan Eight-B operational plan, 82–83, 167; railway track explosion and Manchurian invasion by, 16; recovery of bodies from battlefield by, 150–51; regimental colors, 147–48, 149; Russian Civil War and Japan’s Siberian expedition, 10; Soviet air attacks, response to, 103–4; Soviet forces, need for decisive operations to stop, 111; stand-down order, 150–51; suicide of officers and soldiers, 147–48, 152; 23rd Division, organization and experience of, 91–92; wishful thinking by, 136
Kwantung Leased Territory, 8
Liaotung (Kwantung) Peninsula, 8
limited war, 79, 178–82, 207nn32–34, 208n1
Litvinov, Maksim: Amur River border dispute meetings, 31, 32; Changkufeng negotiations, 59, 61, 69, 72–73, 195nn37–38; four-power talks, 50; German-Soviet trade negotiations, 49; nonaggression pact proposal, 17; replacement of, 155; Soviet foreign policy goals, speech abou
t, 22; Soviet-Polish relations, 48
Lyushkov, Genrikh, 58–59
Manchukuo, border locations, 56–58, 78–82, 165, 197n5; boundary-line and cease-fire agreements, 151; creation of, 1, 16; Kwantung Army defense of, orders for, 110–11; disputed border areas, patrol of and reaction to minor border incidents, 81–82; Kwantung Army posted to, 30–31, 55, 57–58; Soviet air raids in, 103–4, 199nn4–5; threat to Soviets from, 22
Manchuria: air attacks by Japan during conquest of, 103; anti-Soviet campaign and seizure of CER, 10–11; border location and disputes about, 1, 6, 9, 16–20, 56–58, 78–82, 165, 197n5; expansion interests of Japan and Russia and, 7–9; importance of to Japan and imports from, 16, 20; invasion and occupation of by Japan, 11, 16, 18, 20; Japanese farming families, settlement of in, 20; Japanese forces in, 19, 20; railroad line construction in, 18, 20
Marco Polo Bridge incident, 28, 33, 62, 179, 180, 207n33
Maritime Province, Russian/Soviet, 10, 17–18, 132
Molotov, Vyacheslaw, 58, 124, 151, 155, 156, 157, 159, 161–62, 164
Mongolian People’s Republic (MPR)/Outer Mongolia: border location and disputes about, 1, 6, 9, 17–18, 56–58, 78–82, 165, 197n5; boundary-line and cease-fire agreements, 151; condition in and terrain of, 79–80; independence of, 9; mutual defense pact, Soviet-MPR, 90; patrol of border and reaction to minor border incidents, 81–82; Soviet protectorate status of, 1, 8–9; Soviet Russia, relationship with, 190n1; tribes in area of, 80
Morita Norimasa, 141, 143, 145
Morita Toru, 141–42, 145
Moscow, Battle of, 5, 176–78
Mukden incident, 16, 62
Munich Conference, 41, 43, 45, 47–48, 49–50, 77, 154
Mussolini, Benito, 25, 26–27, 41, 45, 155–56
Nagata Tetsuzan, 201n48
Nakajima Tetsuzo, 107–8, 110, 130, 150