Nomonhan, 1939: The Red Army's Victory That Shaped World War II
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Nakamura Kotaro, 60, 61, 63, 64, 67, 68
Nikishev, M. S., 102
Nomonhan incident/Khalkhin Gol conflict: aftermath of, 148–53; air combat operations, 140–41, 203n100; appropriate action of Kwantung Army toward, 89, 181–82; area involved in, 6, 78–82; artillery barrage and counterbattery firing, 127–29; assessment of outcome of, 99–100, 181–82; border dispute as cause of, 1–2, 80–82, 197n5; border dispute principles and, 87–88; border violations before start of, 87–88; casualties of, 2, 3, 79, 98, 99, 120–21, 122–23, 125, 126, 133, 143, 145, 148–49, 203n117; cease-fire agreement, 151, 163–65; Changkufeng incident, link to, 87; diplomatic settlement of, 129–31, 151; encirclement of by Soviets, 145–48; force strength at, 2, 3, 105–6, 112–14, 139; Fui Heights and Halha bridge, 104–7, 112–29, 140, 143–45, 152, 199n9; Halha River bridge destruction by Japanese, 125–26; Halha River, withdrawal to east bank of, 119–20; importance of, 3–5, 187–88n9, 188nn11–12; Japanese initiation of fighting, 84–88, 124; Japanese officers and soldiers, suicide of, 147–48, 152; Japan July offensive, 111–31, 201n49; length of, 3, 79; lessons learned from, 123–24, 166–68, 171–73, 177, 178, 206n6, 206n11; as limited war, 79, 178–82, 207nn32–34, 208n1; map of, 95; map of disputed area, 78, 197n5; name of incident, 79, 196n1; night combat operations, 124–26, 127; nonaggression pact negotiations and, 136, 160–64, 205n22; officers involved in, measures against, 152; opening phases, 88–91; patrol of border and reaction to minor border incidents, 81–82; press coverage and propaganda about, 99, 135, 152–53; reconnaissance missions, 92–93, 94, 107, 133, 137, 141, 142; recovery of bodies from battlefield, 150–51; report to Tokyo about, 199, 199n48; responsibility for decisions about, 180–81, 207n34; September offensive, 149–51, 204n122; Soviet air raids, 103–4, Soviet August offensive, 131–48, 202n78, 202n86, 203n100; 199nn4–5; Soviet deception activities, 135; Soviet firmness toward Japan and, 27; Soviet force build-up, 3, 102–3, 107, 124, 132; Stalin’s alarm about, 160–61; surrender by Japanese, refusal to, 147–48; weather conditions, 145, 149–50
Nonaggression Pact, German-Soviet: agreement to, 149; German Japanese negotiations and, 54; importance of Nomonhan to, 3–5, 160–64, 187–88n9, 188nn11–12, 205n22; negotiation of, 136, 154–56, 158, 159–64; Nomonhan battle beginning and, 156; objectives of, 164; press coverage and propaganda about, 160; push for, 136; terms of, 3, 136; two-front war concerns and, 136, 160–61, 163–64
Ogisu Rippei, 131, 141, 146, 148, 152
Ott, Eugene, 54
Ozaki Hotsumi, 175–76, 194n88, 207n24
Pacific War, 16, 169–74
Pearl Harbor, 165, 173–74, 175, 177
People’s Republic of China, 185
Poland: defense of, Anglo-French pledge of, 156, 163, 164; division of, 159; four-power talks, 50, 193n75; German expansion and invasion of, 53, 131, 151, 156, 158, 163, 205n11; German panzer units, effective use of in, 123; Germany, relations with, 48, 193n70; independence of, guarantee of, 50–51, 53; invasion of, events leading to, 3; nonaggression treaty between Soviets and, 22; Red Army operations in and through, 158, 163–64, 205n13; Russia, cooperation with, 50, 51; Russia, relations with, 48, 193n70; Russian invasion of, 163–64; Soviet aid to Czechoslovakia and transit rights through, 45
popular front/united front policy, 23–27, 44, 154
Potapov, M. I., 137–38, 139, 140, 145, 147
Red Army: air combat operations, 140–41, 203n100; armaments and weaponry of, 2, 94, 96, 117–18, 120, 126–29; attitudes toward, 75, 76, 105–6, 136, 167, 180; Battle of Moscow victory, 5; boundary-line and cease-fire agreements, 151; CER and invasion of Manchuria by, 10–11; Changkufeng incident, 59–60, 61, 65–72, 73–77; deceptive efforts and sound effects, 135, 137; fighting effectiveness of, 55, 75, 76, 122, 167; force strength of, 2, 3, 105–6, 136, 139; German army, cooperation with, 190n1; Halha River bridge and Fui Heights attack, 112–29; infantry logistics and fighting strength of, 133; Japan, attack on, 183–84; Kwantung Army policy toward, 111; leadership of, purge of, 28–29, 31, 33, 43, 55–56, 122; Manchukuo, Soviet air raids in, 103–4, 199nn4–5; Manchurian invasion and neutrality policy of, 16–17; morale in, 122, 135; Nomonhan area, build-up of forces in, 3, 102–3, 107, 124, 132; Nomonhan August offensive, 131–48, 202n86; Nomonhan border dispute response, 90–91; Nomonhan incident events, 1–3, 91–99, 180–82, 208n35; Nomonhan incident lessons, 166–68; Nomonhan incident position, 92; Nomonhan incident, recognition and decoration of heroes, 152–53; Nomonhan July offensive, 111–31; officers and soldiers, recognition of and decoration awards for, 152–53; Poland, operations in and through, 158, 163–64, 205n13; Shachaofeng incident, 64–65, 66, 195n30; Tamsag Bulak, air strike against, 107–11, 112, 200n19, 200n22. See also Far Eastern Army
Red Banner Far Eastern Army, 35, 55, 56, 67–72, 73–75, 192n42
regimental colors, 147–48, 149
Remizov, I. M., 97, 98, 125, 126, 134, 202n86
Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 52, 53, 54, 124, 136, 141, 155, 156, 159, 161, 163, 171, 172, 193n83, 205n13
Romania, 45, 50, 51
Sakai Mikio, 125–26, 152
Sakhalin Island/Northern Sakhalin, 8, 10, 188n2
samurai warrior honor concept, 15, 147
samurai warrior warning message, 111
Sato Kotoku, 64–66, 68, 69–70, 71, 195n30
Schulenburg, Friedrich Werner von der, 155, 156, 159, 161–62
Shachaofeng incident, 64–65, 66, 195n30
Shigemitsu Mamoru, 31, 32, 59, 61, 69, 71–73, 195nn37–38
Shimanuki Takeharu, 83, 86, 87
Shtern, Grigori, 67–70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 83, 112, 124, 132, 153, 196n54
Sino-Japanese War, 8, 15, 28, 33
Sorge, Richard, 54, 124, 132, 155, 161, 175–76, 194n88, 195n38
Soviet Far Eastern Army, 19, 20, 28, 32
Soviet Union and Russia: Anglo-Soviet alliance, negotiations toward, 50–52, 54, 155, 156–59, 160, 162–63, 164, 174, 205n13; anti-Russian German-Japanese pact, 53–54, 124, 194n88; border location between China and, 17–18; border location disputes, 56–58; boundary-line and cease-fire agreements, 151; China, aid to during China War, 34–36, 55; China, relations with, 25, 27–28; Chinese nationalism and Soviet-Japanese relations, 10–11; Czechoslovakia aid from, 44–45; Czechoslovakia defense, treaty with, 41, 44–45; distrust of by Britain and European nations, 50–52; expansion interests of, 7–9; Far East defenses, bolstering of, 18; foreign and defense policy of, 4, 21–28, 42–43, 45–49, 190n1, 192n57; four-power pact, threat to from, 45–46; four-power talks, 50; France, cooperation with, 131; France, mutual assistance pact with, 23, 42, 43, 192n55, 192n57; German attacks on in press, end to, 155; German invasion into, 165, 171–72; German war against, Japanese joining of, 171–72, 174–76, 178; Germany, cooperation with, 42–43, 131; Germany, fighting against, 208n1; Germany, negotiations with, 48–49; Germany, relations with, 52, 193n83; Germany, threat from, 23, 25, 45–46, 192n62; Germany, trade with, 49, 155; Great Britain, cooperation with, 131; Great Britain, relations with, 41–42; Hitler as counterforce against, 40; industrialization, collectivization, and the Five-Year Plan, 11–12; isolationism of, end of, 50; isolationist policies of, 42–43, 45; Japan, appeasement of by, 16–17, 27, 34; Japan, border disputes with, 9, 16–20, 56–58; Japan, China War, and relations with, 33–36, 53, 180; Japan, cooperation with, 8–9; Japan, deterioration of relations with, 16–20; Japan, fighting against, 183–85, 208n1; Japan, neutrality pact with, 165, 171–72; Japan, relations with, 10, 162, 164–65, 188n2; Japan, threat from, 23, 25; Japan’s China operations and weakening of threat from, 33; Japenese prisoners of war, 185; Korean farmers, deportation of from, 74; militarization of economy of, 11; MPR, relationship with, 190n1; Munich Conference, 45, 77; mutual defense pact, Soviet-MPR, 90; neutrality policy of, 16–17; Nomonhan incident and policy decisions by, 5; nonaggression pact objectives, 164; nonaggression pact proposal to Japan, 17; nonaggression treaties between foreign governments and, 22; peace bloc against fascism, organization of
, 46–48, 193n62; peace treaty with Japan, absence of, 185; Poland, relations with, 48, 193n70; Poland invasion by, 163–64; Polish independence and cooperation with, 50–51; preventive war against, proposal for, 17; Russian Civil War and foreign intervention in, 21; Russian Civil War and Japan’s Siberian expedition, 9–10, 17; Spanish policy of, 25–27, 35, 36, 43–44; strategic advantage of, 20; strength of and military potential of, 45; two-front war, avoidance of, 163–64, 183; two-front war concerns, 33, 42, 136, 154, 160–61; United States, diplomatic relations with, 22; war, avoidance of by, 22. See also nonaggression Pact, German-Soviet
Spain, 25–27, 35, 36, 40–41, 43–44
Special Services Agency, 81, 197n6
spiritual battle doctrine, 121–22, 201n48
Stalin, Josef: Anglo-Soviet alliance, negotiations toward, 50–52, 54, 155, 156–59, 160, 162–63, 164, 174, 205n13; antifascist alliance, formation of, 23–24; China War policy of, 35; Comintern role of, 190n3; German attitude toward Soviet-Japanese conflict, 124; industrialization, collectivization, and the Five-Year Plan, 11–12; isolationism of, end of, 50, 154; isolationist policies of, 43; Moscow, Battle of, 176–78; Munich Conference, exclusion from, 45; neutrality policy of, 16–17; Nomonhan incident, 3, 208n35; Nomonhan incident, embarrassment and alarm about, 160–61; Nomonhan offensive, order for, 132; nonaggression pact negotiations, 136, 159–64; nonaggression pact objectives, 164; popular front/united front policy, 23–27, 44; Red Army leadership, purge of by, 28–29, 31, 33, 43, 55–56, 122; two-front war, avoidance of, 183; two-front war possibility, 160–61; Zhukov, interview with, 153
Stalingrad, Battle of, 176, 177
Suetaka Kamezo: Changkufeng incident, 59, 61, 62–65, 66–67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 75, 76, 83–84; Shachaofeng incident, 64–65, 66, 195n30
Sumi Shinichiro, 119–20, 142, 144, 145, 201n49
Tamsag Bulak, 90, 92–93, 94, 97, 102, 107–11, 112, 200n19, 200n22
tanks: antitank defenses, 117–18; battlefield lessons in use of, 123–24; Japanese tank crews, abandonment of vehicles by, 118; Japanese tanks, 19, 105, 112, 115, 117, 118, 120–21; large tank formations, successful use of, 123; Soviet tanks, 19, 28, 96, 106, 113, 115–16, 119, 121, 123–24, 142–43
Terada Masao, 72, 83, 86, 87, 103–5, 109–10, 151
Tientsin, 103–4, 169
Togo Shigenori, 151, 164
Tojo Hideki, 30, 69, 172
total war doctrine, 201n48
Trans-Siberian Railway, 7, 18, 20, 189n3, 190n24
Tripartite Pact, 165, 169, 171
Triple Intervention, 8
Tsuji Masanobu: Amur River incident and command authority of army, 33; attitudes toward and reputation of, 86–87; border dispute principles (Order 1488), 1, 84–88, 89; Changkufeng border dispute plan, 84–85; Changkufeng incident, 59; Changkufeng reconnaissance mission, 84; character of, 84, 130, 197n13; combat experience of, 86–87; defensive operations, weaknesses in, 135–36; encirclement of by Soviets, escape from, 148; family of, 197n13; Halha River bridge and Fui Heights attack, 104–7, 114, 119, 199n9; Halha River, withdrawal to east bank of, 120; influence of, 87; Kwantung Army, transfer from, 151; Nomonhan August operations, 142, 143; Nomonhan incident, 3, 89, 98; Nomonhan incident explanation, 181–82; Nomonhan reconnaissance missions, 107, 133, 141, 142; Pacific War launch, advocate for, 173–74; Pacific War operations, 173, 204n125; post-war activities, 181, 208n37; removal of, attempt at, 110; Soviet air attacks, response to, 103–4; Soviet forces, need for decisive operations to stop, 111; Tamsag Bulak, air strike against, 108–11; Tamsag Bulak reconnaissance mission, 107; wishful thinking by, 136; World War II role of, 3, 208n37
Ueda Kenkichi: border dispute principles, 86–87; combat experience of, 86–87; Halha River bridge and Fui Heights attack plan, 105, 106; inspection tour, 103; Kwantung Army, interference with activities of, 131; Nomonhan August operations, 132; Nomonhan incident, 89; Nomonhan incident, Essentials for settlement of, 131; recovery of bodies from battlefield, 151; relief of command of, 151; Tamsag Bulak, air strike against, 107, 108; Tsuji, relationship with, 86–87
Ugaki Kazushige, 61, 62, 72
united front/popular front policy, 23–27, 44, 154
United States: anti-Soviet policies of, 43; isolationist policies of, 39; Japan, relations with, 39; Japan, threat from, 36; Japan’s decision to go to war against, 5, 168–74, 206n6; Soviets, diplomatic relations with, 22
Ussuri River, 18, 32, 82, 191n33
Versailles, Treaty of, 39–40
Voroshilov, Kliment, 58, 67, 75, 93, 101–2, 103, 158, 162–63
World War I (Great War), 9, 40, 45
World War II: beginning of, 151, 163; events leading to start of, 3–5; German surrender, 183; importance of Nomonhan to start of, 3–5, 187–88n9, 188nn11–12; Japanese surrender, 184–85; Moscow, Battle of, 5, 176–78; Nomonhan incident lessons and, 169–73, 177, 178, 206n6, 206n11; Pacific War, 16, 169–74; prisoners of war, 185; Red Army, attitudes toward, 75; Stalingrad, Battle of, 176, 177
Wuhan, 55, 60, 69, 74, 76
Yakovlev, Mikhail, 115–16, 122–23, 126
Yamagata Takemitsu: Halha River bridge and Fui Heights attack plan, 106; night combat operations, 125–26; Nomonhan incident, 2, 93–94, 96–97, 98, 199n40; regimental colors, 147, 149
Yano Otozaburo: border dispute principles, 86–87; Changkufeng border dispute plan, 85; Halha River bridge and Fui Heights attack, 104, 114, 116, 119; Kwantung Army, transfer from, 151; Nomonhan August operations, 132; Tamsag Bulak, air strike against, 108; Tsuji, relationship with, 87
Yasuoka Masaomi, 105, 106, 115, 117, 118–19
Yonai Mitsumasa, 61, 62, 169
Zhukov, Georgy: artillery barrage operations, 128–29; August offensive, 131–48, 202n86; character of, 101, 166; combat experience of, 101, 166; family of, 101; Halha River bridge and Fui Heights attack, 112–29; July offensive, criticism of performance during, 122–23; Nomonhan area, build-up of forces in, 102–3; Nomonhan area, command of, 101–3; Nomonhan incident, 3, 208n35; Nomonhan incident lessons, 166–68; officers and soldiers, recognition of and decoration awards for, 152–53; reinforcements for, 124, 127; Stalin, interview with, 153; Tamsag Bulak, air strike against, 109; tanks, battlefield lessons in use of, 123–24; temper of, 143–44; World War II role of, 3, 172, 177
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Stuart D. Goldman is a scholar in residence at the National Council for Eurasian and East European Research in Washington, D.C. From 1979–2009, he was the senior specialist in Russian and Eurasian political and military affairs at the Congressional Research Service of the Library of Congress. A resident of Rockville, Md., he holds a Ph.D. from Georgetown University.
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