The Modern Middle East - A Political History Since World War I (Third Edition)

by Mehran Kamrava

  corruption: Arab nationalism and, 90, 91; economic development and, 353; Egypt, 91, 254–55; fees on semiformal sector, 372; innovations such as radio, 63; Iran, 141, 147, 148–49, 166, 198; Islamist parties and, 259; Kuwait, 186; Lebanon’s Rafiq Hariri, 288; Malaysia’s Anwar Ibrahim, 258; Morocco and, 282; multinational corporations and, 261; Netanyahu scandal, 341; PNA, 339; political parties and, 252; rentierism and, 360, 362; repression and, 254; Saud clan, 64, 198; secular nationalism and, 254–55; statism and, 353; Syria, 254–55; ulama and, 256; Wahhabis and, 62

  coups, 218; Algerian FLN, 104; Egypt attempted (1971), 127; Iran (1953), 110, 145, 150; Jordan attempted, 230, 237; Libya (1969), 218, 226; revolutions distinct from, 140; Saddam’s bloodless (1979), 174; Syria, 109, 111, 113–14, 117, 218. See also military coups

  crime: Mizrachim, 304; state punishments, 368–69, 461–62n69; war crimes, 339, 451–52n54. See also hijackings; human rights abuses; violence

  Crusaders, 21, 34

  Ctesiphon, 11

  Cuba, revolution, 139, 140

  cultural values: Arab cultural leaders, 87; early marriage, 389; globalization and, 374–75, 382; identities, 13; Iran, 161–62, 165, 228, 279; legitimacy based on, 279; state types and, 227–29, 235. See also arts; education; ethnicity; intellectuals; languages; national identities; religions; socioeconomic levels

  culture of debate, 287

  Czechoslovakia: democratization, 281; new state, 70

  Damascus: Arab Revolt, 40; French in, 41–42, 44; Islamic expansion into, 17; Muʿawiya caliphate, 19; 1973 war, 131; and Six-Day War, 117, 126

  Damascus Protocol/Hussein-McMahon Correspondence, 37, 39, 40

  Dayan, Moshe, 119, 424n57

  de Gaulle, Charles, 103

  Deir Yassin massacre, Palestinians, 82–83, 419n43

  democracy, 6, 213, 264; from above, 241, 281, 283; Algeria and, 222, 282; Arab uprisings (2011), 5–6, 405; authoritarianism and, 5–6, 209, 211, 262, 268, 273, 281–98, 405; from below, 240–41, 359; civil society and, 241, 243, 280, 284–85; consociational/consensus, 248, 250, 288, 289; Europe and, 140, 240, 265, 283; exclusionary states, 221–22; ideal patterns of transition to, 280, 281; inclusionary states and, 229; Indonesia, 258; Iran and, 142, 155, 239, 262, 280, 285–90; Iraq and, 183; Lebanon and, 215, 240, 241, 248, 262, 280, 285–90; liberal, 215, 245, 262; military, 242; Morocco and, 237–38, 280, 282–83; negotiated transition to, 268–69, 280, 285–90; partial/incomplete, 239–40, 262; PNA and, 330; public facade of, 268–69; quasi-democratic states, 213–16, 239–50, 262; rentierism and, 235, 359, 362; ruling bargain and, 273, 280–98; state-led transition to, 268–69, 280, 285–90; sultanistic states and, 231–32, 235; third wave of democratization, 281, 296; viable, 240–47, 250; Yemen, 271. See also elections; parliaments; republicanism

  Democratic Unionist Party (Al-Waʾad), Jordan, 251–53

  demonstrations. See street demonstrations

  Denoeux, Guilain, 285–86

  deportation: Arab Revolt leaders, 88; Aramco employees, 416n83; of Palestinian activists from Israel, 315, 324

  despair, 404–5

  Destour Party, Tunisia, 104–5

  Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, 63, 64

  diaspora: Jews, 74, 299, 387; Palestinian, 89, 309–10, 387

  dictatorships, 211, 387; bureaucratic, 219; “instruments of cooption,” 290; “insulting dictatorship,” 269; political opposition, 250–51; praetorian, 214, 217–23, 278, 435n3

  domestication, animal, 11, 407n6

  domestic politics, 8, 36, 51, 110, 139, 297, 347; Algeria, 48, 103–4, 106, 253; Arab identity subordinate to, 192; Cold War and, 110; and economic development, 260, 347, 356, 358, 362, 365, 375, 381–82; Egypt, 93–97, 102, 106–9, 113, 127–28, 132–34, 253; exclusionary states, 213–23; French, 48; inclusionary states, 213–15, 218, 223–28, 367–68; Iran, 31, 56–62, 143–67, 176–77; Iraq, 173, 183–84; Israel, 117–19, 132, 134–35, 244–47, 331–33; labor unions and, 253; Lebanon, 288–89; Libya, 99; masses, 223, 224, 227, 228; Morocco, 102, 105–6, 229–31, 253; official/unofficial nationalism and, 274–75; Palestinian, 299, 333; “patron states,” 348–49; quasi-democratic states, 213, 215, 217, 239–50; Saudi, 65, 250, 271; sultanistic states, 213, 215, 227, 229–38; Syria, 109–17, 218, 219, 221; Turkey, 253, 297; U.S., 202; Yemen, 116, 271, 290. See also associations; communists; constitutions; coups; democracy; leaders; liberalization; nationalism; parliaments; personal politics; political opposition; political parties; repression; revolutions; ruling families; socialism; state formation; state-society relations; street demonstrations

  dress code, Islamic, 54, 60, 161, 414n47

  Dreyfus affair, 74, 417n15

  drought, 403. See also rainfall

  Druze, 47, 74, 245–48, 303, 440n93

  dual containment, U.S. foreign policy, 191, 199, 201

  Dubai, skyscrapers, 375fig

  Dutch disease, 362

  Eastern Europe: communist/authoritarian states, 140, 217, 230, 273; democratization, 140, 273, 281, 283; migration to Israel from, 303; negotiated revolutions, 140; new states, 70; parallel or alternative society, 279. See also Hungary; Russians

  Eastern Question, 37

  economic development, 4, 5, 6, 33–34, 347–86, 387; Algeria, 219, 351, 355, 357, 359; Asia, 347–48, 361–62, 377; Egypt, 134, 137, 219, 284, 348, 350–56, 364, 369, 372; environmental pollution and, 396–98; exclusionary state formation and, 219; extractive economies, 6, 359, 360; Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and, 374–77, 376table, 462n84; GDP, 226, 323, 352, 353–54tables, 360, 377; globalization, 212, 374–86; GNP, 352, 353table, 359; infitah (open door policy), 134, 137, 219, 284, 351, 369, 372; Iran, 58–61, 141–49, 162–66, 169, 181, 182, 348–84; Iran-Iraq War, 180–82, 184; Iraq, 180–84, 351, 361, 364; Israeli-Occupied Territories, 310–11, 317, 321–23, 332; Jordan, 229, 283, 352, 357, 361, 364; Morocco, 229, 283, 356, 361; OPEC, 137; “patron state” and, 277–78, 348–49; political opposition and, 260; precocious Keynesianism, 362; quasi-democracies, 241; regionalization and, 377–81; ruling bargain, 211–12, 360, 365; Russia, 191; Saudi, 63–64, 352, 354, 385; secular nationalism’s decline and, 254; statist, 49, 51, 134, 274, 348, 349–57, 362, 363–64, 381–82; sultanistic states, 234, 235; Syria, 348, 351, 357, 382, 403; and trade, 348, 377–82; Turkey, 51, 55, 348, 352, 355, 357, 364; Turkey-Israel alliances, 194; unofficial nationalism and, 274–75; water scarcity and, 401–3. See also agriculture; aid; business; capitalism; economic sectors; employment; industrialization; land; modernism; oil; taxes; transportation

  economic difficulties: debt, 361; Egypt’s people, 265, 272; Great Depression (1930s), 348; Middle East, 265; PNA, 342; recession (1980s and 1990s), 261–62; and ruling bargain, 291; sanctions, 199, 382, 399; statism, 353–54; structural adjustment programs and, 271–72, 357–58; unemployment, 141, 261, 266, 272, 323; uprisings as response to (2011), 266, 372–73. See also economic development; economic reforms

  economic interventionism, 457n7. See also rentierism; statism

  economic liberalization, 219, 261, 271–72, 350–51, 357–65

  economic reforms, 219, 291, 356–57, 369; land reform laws, 94–95, 146–47, 151, 180, 369

  economic sanctions, 199, 382, 399

  economic sectors, 363–74, 384; authoritarianism and, 364, 373; formal, 363–65, 373; informal, 349, 363–70, 373–74, 461n62; Israeli-Occupied Territories, 321–22; mobile informal, 365–69; quasi-formal, 461n58; registration with state, 366, 369–70; semiformal, 349, 363–64, 369–74; stationary informal, 365–68, 461n62. See also banking; business; employment; entrepreneurs; poverty; socioeconomic levels; trade

  education: Iran, 60, 162; Israel, 304–5, 306; Palestinian, 87, 450n39; and rebellion, 266; secondary school, 266; Syria’s French schools, 38; Tunisian, 105; ulama vs. state, 256; West Bank, 311. See also intellectuals

  Egypt, 1, 273; agriculture, 94–95, 353–54, 369, 402–3; Al-Azhar, 256, 258; Arab Spring and revolution (2011), 5, 217, 267, 275, 291–95, 293fig, 386; Arab world vs., 109, 114, 123, 134, 189, 19
2, 193, 326, 327, 455n83; associations, 285; British and, 3, 38, 39, 46–47, 50, 51, 65–66, 91–96, 218, 348, 412n7; bureaucracy, 218; Camp David Accord (1978), 125, 134, 325–27, 333, 345; conspiracy theories, 274; constitutions, 5, 93, 106, 268–69; Copts, 10, 134; cultural legitimation, 279; and democracy, 268–69, 282; economic development, 134, 137, 219, 284, 348, 350–56, 364, 369, 372; economic difficulties of populace, 265, 272; elections, 282, 285, 290, 294, 345; environmental pollution, 399; exclusionary/praetorian/mukhaberat state, 95, 214, 217–22, 280; France and, 23, 96–97; inclusionary state, 215; independence (1921), 46–47, 50; infitah, 134, 137, 219, 284, 351, 369, 372; informal sector, 461n62; intellectuals, 90, 126, 256, 257–58; Islamists, 266, 272; judiciary independence, 218; King Farouq, 91–94; Land Reform Law (1952), 94–95, 369; Liberation Rally, 95, 113; Madrid Peace Conference (1991), 327; Mamluks, 21; Morsi, 5, 293fig, 294, 345; Muhammad Ali, 23, 412n7; multinational corporations, 261; national dialogue, 281; oil workers from, 360, 369; Ottomans, 23, 24, 46, 412n7; Palestinians in, 309; Pan-Arabism, 72, 90, 97–98, 106–9, 113–14, 137–38, 172, 190–92; Pharaoh syndrome, 21; political opposition, 250–51, 253, 254, 257–58, 260; poor punished in, 369; “presidential monarchy,” 268–70; radio, 98, 113, 122, 123, 423n41; repression, 272, 292; Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), 92–95; Saddam in, 174; Saladin, 21; Second Gulf War, 184, 185; security state, 271; semiformal economy, 372; shah of Iran, 158; Shiʿites, 21; social welfare programs, 271; statism, 218, 351; Suez Canal nationalized by, 36, 93, 96, 108; Sufis, 284; ulama, 256; UN peace resolutions, 125, 132; urban areas, 11, 12, 17, 20, 174, 257–58, 369; U.S. Embassy graffiti (September 2012), 294fig; water, 402–3; Young Egypt Society, 91; youth population, 266. See also Arab-Israeli wars; Cairo; Egyptian political parties; Mubarak, Hosni; Nasser, Gamal Abdel; Nasserism/Egyptian nationalism; Sadat, Anwar; Sinai; United Arab Republic (UAR)

  Egyptian military, 270; economic ventures, 221, 270; vs. Farouq, 91–93; Free Officers, 92, 93, 127, 218; Nasser in, 89, 92; Sadat and 1973 War, 127–30, 130fig; Soviet-made arsenal, 122–23; Suez Canal crisis (1956), 96–97, 97fig; Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF), 292–94; UAR and, 113; Yemen, 115

  Egyptian political parties: Arab Socialist Union (ASU), 95, 102, 127, 134, 219, 250–51, 254; Gamaʿa Islamiyya, 222, 260, 280, 369; Muslim Brotherhood, 91–93, 255–59, 282, 294, 314, 345, 369; National Democratic Party, 134, 271; National Progressive Unionist Party, 251; National Union (NU), 95, 112–13; Wafd, 91, 251

  Eisenhower, Dwight/Eisenhower Doctrine, 110–11, 197

  elections, 250, 276; Algeria, 220–22, 271; in associations, 285; Egypt, 282, 285, 290, 294, 345; exclusionary states, 220–22; Indonesia, 258; Iran, 158–68, 286; Iraq, 184, 271–72; Islamist parties and, 251, 258; Israel, 245, 336–37, 440n91; Jordan, 251, 282; Lebanon, 288, 289–90; Libya, 5; Morocco, 238, 282, 286; Palestinian, 339; predetermined, 280; presidential monarchies, 270, 271, 276; quasi-democratic states, 239–40, 242, 243, 245; security state, 270, 271; Sudan, 222; Syria, 276; Tunisia, 5, 251, 282; Turkey, 240, 242, 243, 244; U.S. (1992), 202; U.S. (2008), 206–7. See also parliaments; voting

  elites. See classes; political elites

  empire form, 27. See also Byzantine Empire; colonialism; Ottoman Empire; Roman Empire

  employment: Arab Spring and uprisings (2011) and, 266, 267, 298; corporatism and, 277; day laborers and farmworkers from Israeli-Occupied Territories, 311; foreign workers in oil, 355, 360, 362, 369, 393, 394table, 416n83; jobs that need to be created, 356table; Palestinian, 321–23; rentier economies, 229, 360, 363; rural to urban migrants, 365; unemployment, 141, 261, 266, 272, 323; youth, 266, 291, 298, 323, 355, 393. See also civil service/public employment; economic sectors; labor organizations

  enlightenment, Jewish haskala, 74, 417n14

  Entente Cordial (1904), 38

  entrepreneurs, 261, 277, 369–72. See also business; economic sectors

  environment: pollution, 388, 396–401; protection, 399, 464n20. See also geography

  Erbakan, Necmettin, 243–44

  Erdoğan, Recep Tayyip, 244

  Esfahan, Iran, 12, 29, 30

  Eshkol, Levi, 117, 119, 135, 246–47

  Ethiopia, water, 402–3

  ethnicity, 179; Iranian diversity, 29, 58–59; Islamic divisions, 18; Israeli discrimination based on, 241, 246, 263, 303, 305, 318–22, 322fig; Jews in Israel, 2, 73–84, 241, 302–6; Middle Eastern homogenous, 1–2, 3; stateless, 2, 307–8; Turks, 2, 241. See also anti-Semitism; Arab-Israeli ethnicity; Arabs; Jews; Kurds; national identities; Persians

  Euphrates River, 12, 402–4

  Europe, 36; and democracy, 140, 240–41, 265, 283; fascism, 50, 51, 76, 91, 301, 302, 330; Hapsburg Austria, 24, 27; and Ottomans, 22, 23–24, 25, 37, 71; print capitalism, 69; science and technology identified with, 34; “Spring of Nations”/”Springtime of Peoples” revolutions (1848), 405; Velvet Revolutions, 405. See also Britain; Eastern Europe; European colonialism; European Jews; European Union; France; Germany; Italy; Russians; Spain

  European colonialism, 7–8, 35–51, 65, 405; Arab nationalism and, 71; British, 2–3, 8, 13, 28, 32, 36–51, 45map, 56, 65–66, 218, 387; French, 2–3, 13, 36–50, 45map, 65–66, 79–80, 98–107, 218, 387; Italian, 50, 99; Zionism and, 77. See also mandatory protectorates

  European Jews, 42, 51, 73–77; anti-Semitism toward, 70, 73–74, 301, 417n15; Dreyfus affair, 74, 75, 417n15; Holocaust/Second World War, 51, 77, 82, 106; migration to Palestine/Israel, 73–77, 76table, 88, 300, 301, 303; Russia, 42, 74, 303, 305

  European Union, 165, 283, 297, 339, 377

  Evian Agreements (March 1962), 100, 104

  exclusionary states, 213–29, 263, 416n83, 437–38nn26,36

  exports: high-technology, 375–77, 462n84, 463n85; oil, 377; primary goods, 348. See also oil

  Ezz, Ahmed, 271

  Fahd, King, 271, 439n77

  Faisal, Saudi Crown Prince, 65, 233

  Faisal, son of Sharif Hussein ibn Ali, 42, 44, 71, 230

  families. See ruling families

  faqih/Leader, Iran, 158–68, 224, 426n22

  Farouq, Egyptian King, 91–94

  fascism, European, 50, 51, 77, 91, 301, 302, 330

  fasting, Islamic, 2, 17, 105, 131

  Fatah, PLO, 117, 124, 315–16, 338, 339

  Fath Ali Shah (r. 1797–1834), 30–31

  Fatimids, 20–21

  Fazilet party, Turkey, 259

  Fedayeen, Palestinian, 96, 117, 123, 124–25, 126, 138

  Fedayeen-e Khalq, Iran, 151

  Feith, Douglas, 204

  fertility rates, 389, 392table, 394–96, 425n3

  Fighters for the Freedom of Israel (Lehi), 80

  Finkelstein, Norman, 330

  Flapan, Simha, 82

  Floor, Willem, 30

  food: foreign imports, 394–95; Islamic fasting, 2, 17, 105, 131. See also agriculture

  foreign capital, 260, 348; Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), 374–77, 376table, 462n84; rentierism and, 361; statism and, 350, 357; Turkey, 55. See also aid; capitalism; loans; multinational corporations

  foreign conspiracies, 161, 183–84, 188, 274, 275

  foreign migrants. See migration

  foreign policy: Arab identity in, 192; Barak, 331; British diplomatic objectives in Middle East, 36–37, 39, 44; Bush Doctrine, 200–201, 433n72; Egypt, 47, 95–98, 134; Eisenhower Doctrine, 110–11; French diplomatic objectives in Middle East, 38, 44, 58; Iran’s Khatami and, 164–65; pax Americana, 196, 199, 201; U.S. dual containment, 191, 199, 201; U.S. human rights, 150, 198, 318; U.S. Middle East, 110–11, 170, 172, 191, 196–207. See also colonialism; conflicts; international allies; wars

  France: and British rule in India, 36; Cilicia, 28; colonialism, 2–3, 13, 36–50, 45map, 65–66, 79–80, 98–107, 218, 387; diplomatic objectives in Middle East, 38, 44, 58; diplomatic retreat from Middle East, 110; Dreyfus affair, 74, 417n15; and Egypt, 23, 96–97; Fifth Republic, 103; Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) and, 260; Khomeini exile in Paris, 153; and Lebanon, 38, 44, 50, 248; loans t
o Ottomans, 38; in Maghreb, 3, 38, 47–50, 49fig, 65, 98–107, 116, 218, 237; revolution, 25, 140, 168; Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916), 38–41, 41map, 44, 412n19; and U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003), 204–5

  Free Democratic Party, Turkey, 54, 242

  Freemasons, 284

  Free Officers: Egypt, 92, 93, 127, 218; Iraq, 218; Libya, 218

  fundamentalism: Gush Emunium, 321; Islamic, 194–96, 199–201, 253–64, 274. See also Islamism

  Gamaʿa Islamiyya, Egypt, 222, 260, 280, 369

  Gaza Strip: Arab-Israeli wars, 97, 119, 135–36; economic and cultural divisions, 308; economic strangulation, 321–23, 332; Egyptian section, 84; house demolitions, 123, 317–19, 418n35; human rights abuses by Israelis, 339, 452n54; intifada, 86, 311, 314, 315; Islam increasing in, 313; Israeli air strikes, 339–41, 341fig, 342fig; Israeli occupation, 123, 128, 135–36, 311, 314, 319–22, 332, 339; after Israeli withdrawal, 339; Operation Iron Cast, 339; Operation Pillars of Defense, 339–41; Palestinian depopulation, 317; Palestinian Muslims, 310, 314; Palestinian population, 107, 123, 309; peace process and, 135, 326, 328–29; poverty, 322–23; refugee camps, 309, 317, 450n39; rocket attacks from, 339–41, 344fig; Sharon “Disengagement Plan,” 338–39; water, 402

  GDP (gross domestic product), 226, 323, 352, 353–54tables, 360, 377

  Gellner, Ernest, 69

  gender: fertility rates and, 389, 395–96. See also marriages; women

  Geneva Convention (1947), 318

  geography: caliphates and, 22; deserts, 6, 12; Islam and, 9, 18; Israel, 73; mountains, 12; nationalism and, 68–69; population and, 12–13, 33. See also border conflicts; environment; land; water

  Germany: Baghdad Railway, 37–38; French competition with, 37; Great War, 28, 38; Iran and, 61, 142, 415n74; Jews, 74; loans to Ottomans, 38; Nazis/Holocaust, 51, 82, 301, 330; and U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003), 204–5; Versailles Treaty, 42

  Gerner, Deborah, 299

  Ghalzai Afghans, 30

  al-Ghannouchi, Rachid (b. 1941), 257, 258