GPS Declassified

by Richard D. Easton

  archives/speeches/1983/92683a.htm.

  18. Tony Rennell, “September 26, 1983: The Day the World Almost Died ,” Daily Mail, December 29, 2007, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-505009/

  September-26th-1983-The-day-world-died.html.

  19. “Statement by Deputy Press Secretary Larry M. Speakes on the Soviet Attack on a Korean Civilian Airliner ,” September 16, 1983, Public Papers of President Ronald W. Reagan, Ronald Reagan Presidential Library, http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1983/91683c.htm.

  20. William P. Clements Jr., deputy secretary of defense, “Memorandum for the Secretaries of the Military Departments; Subject: Defense Navigation Satellite Development Program (DNSDP) ,” April 17, 1973, 2.

  21. U.S. Departments of the Army, Navy and Air Force Navigation Satellite Executive Steering Group, “Memorandum for the Members of NAVSEG; Subject: Miscellany From the Past Chairman ,” November 2, 1970.

  22. Sonnemann, memorandum to Frazier.

  23. Parkinson, oral history by Michael Geselowitz.

  24. Edward Miguel and Gerard Roland, “The Long Run Impact of Bombing Vietnam ,” Journal of Development Economics 96, no. 1 (September 2011): 1–15.

  25. John L. McLucas, “The U.S. Space Program since 1961: A Personal Assessment ,” in The U.S. Air Force in Space: 1945 to the 21st Century; Proceedings of the Air Force Historical Foundation Symposium, Andrews AFB, Maryland, September 21–22, 1995, ed. R. Cargill Hall and Jacob Neufeld (Washington DC: USAF History and Museums Program, United States Air Force), 93.

  26. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Petroleum Chronology of Events 1970–2000, Arab Oil Embargo ,” May 2002, http://www.eia.gov/pub/oil_gas/petroleum/

  analysis_publications/chronology/petroleumchronology2000.htm (accessed October 8, 2011); U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Consumer Price Index, All Urban Consumers (CPI-U), September 15, 2011, ftp://ftp.bls.gov/pub/special.requests/cpi/cpiai.txt; FedPrimeRate.com, “History of the U.S. (Fed) Prime Rate from 1947 to the Present ,” http://www.wsjprimerate.us/wall_street_journal_

  prime_rate_history.htm (accessed October 9, 2011).

  27. Dana J. Johnson, Overcoming Challenges to Transformational Space Programs: The Global Positioning System (GPS) (Arlington VA: Northrop Grumman Analysis Center, 2006), 10, http://www.northropgrumman.com/analysis-center/paper/assets/Overcoming-Challenges-to-Trans.pdf.

  28. U.S. General Accounting Office, Comptroller General’s Report to Congress: The NAVSTAR Global Positioning System—A Program with Many Uncertainties (Washington DC, January 17, 1979), 13–15, http://www.gao.gov/products/PSAD-79-16.

  29. Parkinson and Powers, “Fighting to Survive ,” 8–18.

  30. Jeffrey A. Drezner and Giles K. Smith, An Analysis of Weapon System Acquisition Schedules, R-3937-ACQ (Santa Monica CA: RAND, 1990), 188.

  31. Johnson, Overcoming Challenges to Transformational Space Programs, 10.

  32. Drezner and Smith, Analysis of Weapon System Acquisition Schedules, 188.

  33. Matthew E. Skeen, “The Global Positioning System: A Case Study in the Challenges of Transformation ,” Joint Force Quarterly, no. 51 (Fourth Quarter 2008): 88–93. Charles H. Wilson should not be confused with the Texas representative made famous by the movie Charlie Wilson’s War for funneling arms to Afghanistan’s mujahideen during the Soviet occupation.

  34. Skeen, “Global Positioning System. ”

  35. Johnson, Overcoming Challenges to Transformational Space Programs, 10.

  36. Congressional Budget Office, Strategic Command, Control, and Communications: Alternative Approaches for Modernization (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981), 24. Sources vary in spelling out the acronym IONDS; some use the word detonation, while others use the word detection. CBO used both.

  37. Curtis Peebles, High Frontier: The U.S. Air Force and Military Space Program (Darby PA: Diane Publishing, 1997), 41–42.

  38. Peebles, High Frontier, 42.

  39. Rockwell International, GPS/IGS Design Analysis Report, vol. 1 (Cedar Rapids IA, November 15, 1982), 1. Nuclear detonation detection uses a separate radio signal, L3, at 1,381.05 megahertz.

  40. Congressional Budget Office, Strategic Command, Control, and Communications, 24.

  41. Department of Defense, Annual Report, Fiscal Year 1981 (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1980), 144.

  42. U.S. General Accounting Office, Comptroller General’s Report to Congress: NAVSTAR Should Improve the Effectiveness of Military Missions—Cost Has Increased (Washington DC, February 15, 1980), 19.

  43. Scott Pace et al. The Global Positioning System: Assessing National Policies (Santa Monica CA: RAND, 1995), 249; Smithsonian National Museum of American History, “Macrometer V-1000 ,” http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/surveying/object.cfm?recordnumber=997498 (accessed November 2, 2011).

  44. Pace et al., Global Positioning System, 248.

  45. Richard B. Langley, “Smaller and Smaller: The Evolution of the GPS Receiver ,” GPS World, April 2000, 54–58.

  46. Alison Brown, “A Perspective on Land Navigation: The Evolution from Man-Packs to Modules ,” paper presented at GNSS 2000, Edinburgh, Scotland, May 2000, 1; http://www.navsys.com/Papers/0005003.pdf.

  47. Ilari Koskelo, “GNSS: From Experts to Everybody ,” presented at the European Meeting of the Civil GPS Service Interface Committee, International Information Subcommittee, Stockholm, Sweden, October 27, 2009, http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pdf/cgsicMeetings/

  EISubcommittee/Stockholm_2009/4_Koskelo.pdf.

  48. Brown, “Perspective on Land Navigation ,” 1.

  49. Langley, “Smaller and Smaller. ”

  50. Sheryl Mikkola, “Generalized Development Model (GDM) ,” Institute of Navigation, Navigation Museum, http://www.ion.org/museum/cat_view.cfm?cid=7&scid=9 (accessed January 5, 2011).

  51. Phil Ward, “Texas Instruments TI 4100 NAVSTAR Navigator ,” Institute of Navigation, Navigation Museum, http://www.ion.org/museum/item_view.cfm?cid=7&scid=9&iid=22 (accessed January 5, 2011).

  52. “Texas Instruments Introduces New Satplan Software for Global Positioning System ,” Maritime Reporter and Engineering News, March 1, 1985, 40.

  53. Old-Computers.com, “Texas Instruments Portable Professional Computer ,” http://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?st=1&c=472 (accessed January 8, 2012).

  54. U.S. General Accounting Office, Comptroller General’s Report to Congress: NAVSTAR Should Improve the Effectiveness of Military Missions, 12.

  55. NASA.gov, “Space Shuttle Missions ,” http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/

  shuttlemissions/index.html (accessed August 29, 2011).

  56. Frank Czopek, “GPS 12 ,” Institute of Navigation, Navigation Museum, http://www.ion.org/museum/item_view.cfm?cid=7&scid=9&iid=23 (accessed January 8, 2011).

  57. Pace et al., Global Positioning System, 243; Mark C. Cleary, Delta II & III Space Operations at Cape Canaveral, 1989–2009 (Patrick AFB FL: Forty-Fifth Space Wing Office of History, 2009), 4, www.afspacemuseum.org/archive/histories/Delta.pdf.

  58. Cleary, Delta II & III Space Operations, 2, 4.

  59. GPS.gov, “Space Segment ,” http://www.gps.gov/systems/gps/space (accessed August 29, 2011).

  60. Pace et al., Global Positioning System, 249.

  61. Langley, “Smaller and Smaller. ”

  62. Langley, “Smaller and Smaller. ”

  63. Langley, “Smaller and Smaller. ”

  7. Going to War

  1. John A. Tirpak, “The Secret Squirrels ,” Air Force Magazine 77, no. 5 (April 1994): 56–60.

  2. Rip and Hasik, Precision Revolution, 160.

  3. Jon Lake, B-52 Stratofortress Units in Operation Desert Storm (Oxford UK: Osprey, 2004), 35.

  4. Joseph C. Jones, “Surprised by Secret Squirrel ,” Air Force Print News Today, February 1, 2011, http://www.307bw.afrc.af.mil/news/story_print.asp?id=123240704.

  5. Tirpak, “Secret Squirrels. ”

  6. Rip and H
asik, Precision Revolution, 159.

  7. George M. Siouris, Missile Guidance and Control Systems (New York: Springer-Verlag, 2003), 551–52.

  8. John T. Nielson, “The Untold Story of the CALCM: The Secret GPS Weapon Used in the Gulf War ,” GPS World 6, no. 1 (January 1995): 26–32.

  9. John T. Nielson, “CALCM—The Untold Story of the Weapon Used to Start the Gulf War ,” IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine 9, no. 7 (July 1994): 18–22.

  10. U.S. Air Force, “AGM-B/C/D Missiles Factsheet ,” May 24, 2010, http://www.af.mil/information/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=74.

  11. Tirpak, “Secret Squirrels. ”

  12. Richard Hallion, Storm over Iraq: Air Power and the Gulf War (Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992), 102–3; Congressional Budget Office, Naval Combat Aircraft: Issues and Options (Washington DC: Government Printing Office, November 1987), 11.

  13. Rip and Hasik, Precision Revolution, 167.

  14. Hallion, Storm over Iraq, 296; Rip and Hasik, Precision Revolution, 168; MissileThreat.com, “Cruise Missiles: AGM-84E SLAM ,” February 13, 2012, http://www.missilethreat.com/cruise/id.119/cruise_detail.asp.

  15. U.S. Navy, “Fact File: SLAM-ER Missile ,” February 20, 2009, http://www.navy.mil/navydata/fact_display.asp?cid=2200&tid=1100&ct=2.

  16. Hallion, Storm over Iraq, 296; Rip and Hasik, Precision Revolution, 168.

  17. U.S. Department of Defense, Conduct of the Persian Gulf War, Final Report to Congress (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992), 858–60; Rip and Hasik, Precision Revolution, 167–70.

  18. Tirpak, “Secret Squirrel ”; Nielson, “Untold Story of the CALCM ”; Rip and Hasik, Precision Revolution, 159; Hallion, Storm over Iraq, 172.

  19. “Air Force Launched 35 ALCMs on First Night of Gulf Air War ,” Defense Daily, January 17, 1992.

  20. U.S. Department of Defense, Conduct of the Persian Gulf War, 853.

  21. Gulf War Air Power Survey, vol. 4, Weapons, Tactics, and Training (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993), 248–52.

  22. U.S. Air Force, “AGM-B/C/D Missiles Factsheet. ”

  23. U.S. Department of Defense, Conduct of the Persian Gulf War, 215; Naval Air Systems Command, “Aircraft & Weapons: Tomahawk ,” http://www.navair.navy.mil/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.display&key=

  F4E98B0F-33F5-413B-9FAE-8B8F7C5F0766 (accessed February 16, 2012).

  24. U.S. Department of Defense, Conduct of the Persian Gulf War, 171, 863.

  25. “U.S. Military Technology in Saudi Arabia ,” CBS Evening News, transcript, November 16, 1990, LexisNexis Academic.

  26. “Soviet Crackdown Leaves 13 Dead in Lithuania ,” ABC Weekend News Sunday, transcript, January 13, 1991, LexisNexis Academic.

  27. “Spy Satellites Have Role in Gulf War ,” CBS Evening News, transcript, February 8, 1991, LexisNexis Academic.

  28. Karen Tumulty and Bob Drogin, “Ground War Puts Some Exotic New Weapons Systems to Test ,” Los Angeles Times, February 25, 1991, http://articles.latimes.com/print/1991-02-25/

  news/mn-1481_1_ground-war.

  29. Andrew Pollack, “Business Technology: War Spurs Navigation by Satellite ,” New York Times, February 6, 1991.

  30. Crossfire, CNN, transcript, January 25, 1991, LexisNexis Academic.

  31. “On Fighting a High Tech Ground War ,” CBS News Special Report, transcript, February 23, 1991, LexisNexis Academic.

  32. Thomas B. Allen, F. Clifton Berry, and Norman Polmar, CNN: War in the Gulf (Atlanta: Turner, 1991), 146.

  33. Allen, Berry, and Polmar, CNN, 180.

  34. Rick Atkinson, Crusade: The Untold Story of the Persian Gulf War (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1993), 76.

  35. Gulf War Air Power Survey, 4:85.

  36. U.S. General Accounting Office, Operation Desert Storm: Evaluation of the Air Campaign (Washington DC, June 1997), 178, http://www.gao.gov/products/NSIAD-97-134.

  37. Kenneth P. Werrell, Chasing the Silver Bullet: U.S. Air Force Weapons Development from Vietnam to Desert Storm (Washington DC: Smithsonian Books, 2003), 262.

  38. Werrell, Chasing the Silver Bullet, 264; U.S. Department of Defense, Conduct of the Persian Gulf War, 785; Gulf War Air Power Survey, Summary Report (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993), 199.

  39. Walter J. Boyne, Beyond the Wild Blue: A History of the U.S. Air Force 1947–1997 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), 275.

  40. Darrell D. Whitcomb, Combat Search and Rescue in Desert Storm (Maxwell AFB AL: Air University Press, 2006), 113.

  41. Gulf War Air Power Survey, Summary Report, 199; Gulf War Air Power Survey, vol. 2, Operations and Effects and Effectiveness (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993), 236.

  42. Richard Mackenzie, “Apache Attack ,” Air Force Magazine, October 1991, http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/1991/October%201991/1091apache.aspx.

  43. Thomas Taylor, Lightning in the Storm: The 101st Air Assault Division in the Gulf War (New York: Hippocrene Books, 1994), 158, 169.

  44. Taylor, Lightning in the Storm, 132.

  45. Hallion, Storm over Iraq, 167.

  46. Whitcomb, Combat Search and Rescue, 202–7.

  47. Whitcomb, Combat Search and Rescue, 207.

  48. Edward J. Marolda and Robert John Schneller Jr., Shield and Sword: The United States Navy and the Persian Gulf War (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2001), 301.

  49. Marolda and Schneller, Shield and Sword, 247.

  50. Rip and Hasik, Precision Revolution, 419.

  51. U.S. Department of Defense, Conduct of the Persian Gulf War, 336; Rip and Hasik, Precision Revolution, 178–79.

  52. Maryann Lawlor, “Keeping Track of the Blue Force ,” Signal Magazine, July 2003, http://www.afcea.org/content/?q=node/127; Roxana Tiron, “Army’s Blue-Force Tracking Technology Was a Tough Sell ,” National Defense and Technology Magazine, December 2003, http://www.nation-aldefensemagazine.org/archive/2003/December/

  Pages/Armys_Blue3685.aspx; StrategyPage.com, “Grandson of Blue Force Tracker Goes to War ,” February 28, 2013, http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htiw/articles/20130228.aspx.

  53. H. Norman Schwarzkopf and Peter Petre, It Doesn’t Take a Hero (New York: Bantam Books, 1993), 455.

  54. U.S. Department of Defense, Conduct of the Persian Gulf War, 219.

  55. U.S. Department of Defense, Conduct of the Persian Gulf War, 219.

  56. Roger Cohen and Claudio Gatti, In the Eye of the Storm: The Life of General H. Norman Schwarzkopf (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1991), 289.

  57. Kaleb Dissinger, “GPS Goes to War: The Global Positioning System in Operation Desert Storm ,” Army.mil, February 14, 2008, http://www.army.mil/article/7457/

  GPS_Goes_to_War___The_Global_Positioning_

  System_in_Operation_Desert_Storm_/.

  58. U.S. Department of Defense, Conduct of the Persian Gulf War, 654.

  59. Dissinger, “GPS Goes to War. ”

  60. Sheryl Mikkola, “Rockwell Manpack Global Positioning System GPS Receiver ,” Institute of Navigation, Navigation Museum, http://www.ion.org/museum/item_view.cfm?cid=7&scid=9&iid=10 (accessed March 13, 2012); Smithsonian National Museum of American History, “Manpack Global Positioning System GPS Receiver ,” http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/object.cfm?key=35&objkey=220 (accessed March 13, 2012).

  61. Rip and Hasik, Precision Revolution, 136.

  62. U.S. Space Command, United States Space Command: Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm Assessment (Peterson AFB CO, January 1992), 28.

  63. Dissinger, “GPS Goes to War. ”

  64. U.S. Department of Defense, Conduct of the Persian Gulf War, 876.

  65. Gulf War Air Power Survey, vol. 5, A Statistical Compendium and Chronology (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993), 132.

  66. Gulf War Air Power Survey, 5:131; Whitcomb, Combat Search and Rescue, 245.

  67. Dissinger, “GPS Goes to War. ”

  68. Rip and Hasik, Precision Revolution, 13
8.

  69. Rip and Hasik, Precision Revolution, 147.

  70. U.S. Space Command, United States Space Command: Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm Assessment, 40.

  71. Rip and Hasik, Precision Revolution, 137–42.

  72. GenCorp Aerojet Space Systems Division, DSP Desert Storm Summary Briefing (Azusa CA, June 1991), 32–35.

  73. Craig Covault et al., “Desert Storm Reinforces Military Space Directions ,” Aviation Week & Space Technology 134, no. 14 (April 8, 1991): 42; U.S. Department of Defense, Report of the Secretary of Defense to the President and the Congress (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, February 1992), 85.

  74. U.S. Space Command, United States Space Command: Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm Assessment, 25–26.

  75. Rip and Hasik, Precision Revolution, 132.

  76. U.S. Space Command, United States Space Command: Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm Assessment, 27; Rip and Hasik, Precision Revolution, 132.

  77. U.S. Space Command, United States Space Command: Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm Assessment, 28.

  78. A complete explanation of the command structure and history of the 2nd Space Operations Squadron is available at U.S. Air Force, Schriever AFB, “2nd Space Operations Squadron ,” February 8, 2013, http://www.schriever.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=4045.

  79. Rip and Hasik, Precision Revolution, 133–34.

  80. U.S. Space Command, United States Space Command: Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm Assessment, 27.

  81. Rip and Hasik, Precision Revolution, 133–34.

  82. Rip and Hasik, Precision Revolution, 133–34.

  83. U.S. Department of Defense, Conduct of the Persian Gulf War, 877.

  84. Johnson, Overcoming Challenges to Transformational Space Programs, 10.

  85. Edwin Chen, “Capital Mood Mixes Anger, Resignation ,” Los Angeles Times, January 17, 1991, http://articles.latimes.com/1991-01-17/news/mn-428_1_national-capital.

  86. Rip and Hasik, Precision Revolution, 224.

  87. General Dynamics Ordnance and Tactical Systems, “General Dynamics and BAE Systems Demonstrate 81mm Precision Mortar Round ,” news release, February 21, 2012, http://www.gd-ots.com/News.html.