GPS Declassified

by Richard D. Easton

  8. Going Mainstream

  1. Except where noted otherwise, this account of the shoot down and rescue of Capt. Scott O’Grady is drawn from Scott O’Grady, Return with Honor (New York: Doubleday, 1995); and Mary Pat Kelly, Good to Go: The Rescue of Scott O’Grady from Bosnia (Annapolis MD: Naval Institute Press, 1996).

  2. Dan Stets, “Where on Earth? The Global Positioning System Can Answer That Question ,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 16, 1996, Lexis-Nexis Academic.

  3. Debra Gersh Hernandez, “Public Interest Waning in O.J. Trial: Times Mirror Center Survey Shows Number of People Following It Very Closely Is at the Lowest Point since June 1994 ,” Editor & Publisher, July 8, 1995, 12, LexisNexis Academic.

  4. Haya El Nasser, “High-Flying O’Grady Fills Hunger for Hero ,” USA Today, June 14, 1995, LexisNexis Academic.

  5. Associated Press, “1995: A Year of Trials and Tribulations; Top 10 Lists ,” Austin-American Statesman (TX), December 31, 1995, LexisNexis Academic. O’Grady’s rescue ranked eighth. The bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City was the top story. O. J. Simpson’s acquittal ranked third, after the breakup of Yugoslavia.

  6. Rowan Scarborough, “Downed Pilot’s Radio Called Obsolete: Air Force Told State-of-the-Art Model Is Available ,” Washington Times, July 17, 1995, LexisNexis Academic.

  7. Scarborough, “Downed Pilot’s Radio Called Obsolete. ”

  8. Scarborough, “Downed Pilot’s Radio Called Obsolete. ”

  9. “Add Satcom to Rescue Radios—Fast ,” editorial, Aviation Week & Space Technology, October 23, 1995, 78, LexisNexis Academic.

  10. “Add Satcom to Rescue Radios. ”

  11. “Rockwell Wins Combat Survival Radio Project ,” Aerospace Daily, February 29, 1996, 316, LexisNexis Academic.

  12. “GPS Companies Awarded Combat Survivor Evader Locator Contracts ,” Global Positioning & Navigation News, March 7, 1996, LexisNexis Academic.

  13. David Atkinson, “DOD Report Says Current CSEL ‘Not Operationally Suitable ,” ” Defense Daily, February 11, 1999, LexisNexis Academic.

  14. “Critical Intelligence ,” Inside the Pentagon, October 7, 2004, LexisNexis Academic.

  15. “Program Office Marks Upcoming Delivery of 50,000th Combat Survivor Evader Locator Unit ,” U.S. Fed News, October 5, 2011, LexisNexis Academic.

  16. Ann Roosevelt, “Personnel Recovery Goes Beyond Altruism, General Says ,” Defense Daily, September 1, 2004, LexisNexis Academic.

  17. “Rockwell Wins $13 Million Contract for Pilot Location System ,” Armed Forces Newswire Service, March 5, 1996, LexisNexis Academic; “Program Office Marks Upcoming Delivery. ”

  18. Elizabeth Rees, “Due to ‘Urgent’ Need, USAF to Produce More Survivor Radios in FY-03 ,” Inside the Air Force, April 25, 2003, LexisNexis Academic.

  19. James R. Schlesinger et al., The Global Positioning System: Charting the Future, Summary Report (Washington DC: National Academy of Public Administration and National Research Council, May 1995), http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/?pageName=gpsFuture.

  20. Pace et al., Global Positioning System.

  21. Bruce D. Nordwall, “Navsat Users Want Civil Control ,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, October 18, 1993, 57, LexisNexis Academic.

  22. Anne G. K. Solomon, “The Global Positioning System ,” in Triumphs and Tragedies of the Modern Presidency: Seventy-Six Case Studies in Presidential Leadership, ed. David M. Abshire (Westport CT: Praeger, 2001), 109.

  23. Patricia A. Gilmartin, “Gulf War Rekindles U. S. Debate on Protecting Space System Data ,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, April 29, 1991, 55, LexisNexis Academic.

  24. Ben Iannotta, “Europe Weighs Building Its Own GPS ,” Aerospace America, September 1, 1999, 34, LexisNexis Academic.

  25. Jeffrey M. Lenorovitz, “Steady Growth Seen for Commercial Space ,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, March 15, 1993, 83, LexisNexis Academic.

  26. Laurence Hooper, Jacob M. Schlesinger, and Richard L. Hudson, “Precise Navigation Points to New Worlds ,” Wall Street Journal, March 4, 1991, ProQuest.

  27. Hooper, Schlesinger, and Hudson, “Precise Navigation Points to New Worlds. ”

  28. Hooper, Schlesinger, and Hudson, “Precise Navigation Points to New Worlds. ”

  29. John T. Mulqueen, “Clocking the Network—Synchronization Needs Expanding ,” InternetWeek, November 11, 1991, 23, LexisNexis Academic.

  30. Gilmartin, “Gulf War Rekindles U. S. Debate ”; John J. Fialka, “Poor Man’s Cruise: Airliners Can Exploit U.S. Guidance System, but So Can Enemies ,” Wall Street Journal, August 26, 1993, ProQuest.

  31. Pace et al., Global Positioning System, 150.

  32. Pace et al., Global Positioning System, 14.

  33. Fialka, “Poor Man’s Cruise. ”

  34. Fialka, “Poor Man’s Cruise. ”

  35. Philip J. Klass, “INMARSAT Plan Spurs GPS Debate ,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, July 26, 1993, 23, LexisNexis Academic.

  36. Pace et al., Global Positioning System, 180.

  37. Pace et al., Global Positioning System, 289.

  38. U.S. Coast Guard Navigation Center, “GPS Fully Operational Statement of 1995 ,” May 2, 2001, http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/?pageName=global.

  39. Government Printing Office, “59 FR-Announcement of Global Positioning System (GPS) Initial Operational Capability (IOC) and Its Impact on Vessel Carriage Requirement Regulations ,” Federal Register 59, no. 56 (March 23, 1994), http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-1994-03-23/html/94-6813.htm.

  40. U.S. Coast Guard Navigation Center, “NDGPS General Information ,” http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/?pageName=dgpsMain (accessed July 1, 2012).

  41. “GPS Approved for IFR Approaches ,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, June 14, 1993, 44, LexisNexis Academic.

  42. Bruce D. Nordwall, “FAA Details Phases for GPS Flight Use ,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, June 21, 1993, 75, LexisNexis Academic.

  43. Federal Aviation Administration, “Global Positioning System: A Guide for the Approval of GPS Receiver Installation and Operation ,” October 1996, 312, http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/

  headquarters_offices/avs/offices/afs/afs400/

  afs470/gps_guide/media/gps1.pdf; David Hughes, “FAA Gears Up for GPS Approaches ,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, September 19, 1994, 65, LexisNexis Academic.

  44. Federal Aviation Administration, “Global Positioning System. ”

  45. Garmin, “The Garmin 430: An Introduction to Aviation GPS: Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring ,” May 25, 2012, http://www.garmin430.com/raim.htm.

  46. Daniel Pearl, “FAA Clears Civilian Airlines to Use Military Satellite Signals in Navigation ,” Wall Street Journal, February 18, 1994, ProQuest.

  47. Nordwall, “FAA Details Phases for GPS Flight Use. ”

  48. David Hughes, “Continental Pursues GPS-Only Approaches ,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, August 2, 1993, 57, LexisNexis Academic.

  49. Hughes, “Continental Pursues GPS-Only Approaches. ”

  50. Nordwall, “FAA Details Phases for GPS Flight Use. ”

  51. AOPA Online, “Airports and Landing Areas, 1965–2009 ,” March 25, 2011, http://www.aopa.org/whatsnew/stats/airports.html.

  52. AOPA Online, “Airports and Landing Areas, 1965–2009. ”

  53. Bureau of Transportation Statistics, “Historical Air Traffic Statistics, Annual 1954–1980 ,” May 30, 2012, http://www.bts.gov/programs/airline_information/

  air_carrier_traffic_statistics/airtraffic/annual/1954_1980.html; Bureau of Transportation Statistics, “Historical Air Traffic Statistics, 1981–1995 ,” May 30, 2012, http://www.bts.gov/programs/airline_information/

  air_carrier_traffic_statistics/airtraffic/annual/1981_present.html.

  54. Bureau of Transportation Statistics, “Historical Air Traffic Statistics, 1981–1995 ”; Andrew R. Thomas, Soft Landing: Airline Industry Strategy, Service, and Safety (New York: Apress Media, 2011), 54–55.

  55. Thomas, Soft Landing, 77; U.S.
Government Accounting Office, “Commuter Airline Safety Would Be Enhanced with Better FAA Oversight ,” March 17, 1992, http://www.gao.gov/products/T-RCED-92-40.

  56. Thomas, Soft Landing, 55.

  57. Federal Document Clearing House, Congressional Testimony, “Testimony March 24, 1994: Jeff Ariens, Director of Flight Operations Technology, Continental Airlines, House Science, Global Positioning System ,” LexisNexis Academic.

  58. Federal Document Clearing House, Ariens testimony.

  59. Federal Document Clearing House, Ariens testimony.

  60. Federal Document Clearing House, Congressional Testimony, “Testimony March 24, 1994: Martin T. Pozesky, Associate Administrator, System Engineering and Development, House Science, Global Positioning System ,” LexisNexis Academic.

  61. Federal Aviation Administration, “Advisory Circular 120-29A: Criteria for Approval of Category I and Category II Weather Minima for Approach ,” August 17, 2010, http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/

  advisory_circulars/index.cfm/go/document.information/

  documentID/22752.

  62. Federal Document Clearing House, Pozesky testimony.

  63. Nordwall, “FAA Details Phases for GPS Flight Use. ”

  64. Hughes, “FAA Gears Up for GPS Approaches. ”

  65. Daniel Pearl, “FAA May Spend Up to $500 Million to Track Aircraft ,” Wall Street Journal, June 9, 1994, ProQuest.

  66. “President Clinton Says U.S. Committed to Civil Use of GPS ,” Aviation Daily, March 28, 1995, LexisNexis Academic.

  67. Schlesinger et al., Global Positioning System, 7.

  68. Pace et al., Global Positioning System, 117.

  69. Pace et al., Global Positioning System, 211.

  70. Pace et al., Global Positioning System, 104.

  71. Schlesinger et al., Global Positioning System, 9.

  72. Federation of American Scientists, “Presidential Decision Directive NTSC 6 ,” March 26, 1996, http://www.fas.org/spp/military/docops/national/gps.htm (accessed June 3, 2012).

  73. “Press Conference with Vice President Al Gore, Transportation Secretary Federico Pena and Others, Subject: Global Positioning System, The Old Executive Office Building ,” Federal News Service, March 29, 1996, LexisNexis Academic.

  74. Matthew L. Wald, “A Contract Is Awarded to Improve Navigation ,” New York Times, August 4, 1995.

  75. Bruce D. Nordwall, “FAA Swaps WAAS Vendors ,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, May 6, 1996, 34, LexisNexis Academic; PR Newswire, “AOPA Applauds FAA Decisiveness in Cancelling Wilcox WAAS Contract but Criticizes Slow Implementation of GPS Satellite Navigation ,” news release, April 26, 1996, LexisNexis Academic.

  76. Perry Bradley, “Wide Area Augmentation ,” Business & Commercial Aviation, November 1997, 86, LexisNexis Academic.

  77. James E. Swikard, ed., “The FAA Officially Turned on the Wide Area Augmentation System ,” Business & Commercial Aviation, August 2003, LexisNexis Academic; Matthew L. Wald, “The Long Search for the Perfect Landing ,” International Herald Tribune, June 11, 2003, LexisNexis Academic.

  78. “Wide Area Augmentation System Instrument Approaches Now Outnumber Instrument Landing System Approaches ,” U.S. Fed News, November 6, 2008, LexisNexis Academic.

  79. U.S. Coast Guard Navigation Center, “Nationwide Differential Global Positioning (NDGPS) Memorandum of Agreement ,” http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pdf/ndgps/

  ndgpsESC/backgroundDocuments/NDGPS%20MOA%20%20Feb%2099.pdf (accessed July 1, 2012).

  80. “WAAS Receivers Sell Well—Is Coast Guard System Necessary ,” Global Positioning & Navigation News, September 6, 2000, LexisNexis Academic.

  81. Timothy A. Klein, “Nationwide Differential GPS (NDGPS) Program Update ,” PowerPoint presentation at the Fiftieth Meeting of the Civil GPS Service Interface Committee, ION GNSS 2010 Conference, Portland OR, September 21, 2010, http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pdf/ndgps/

  50th_CGSIC_NDGPS_Klein_092110.pdf.

  82. Pace et al., Global Positioning System, 108.

  83. Pace et al., Global Positioning System, 109.

  84. Neela Banerjee, “Tracking Travel ,” Wall Street Journal, January 4, 1994, ProQuest.

  85. Business Wire, “Satellite Navigation Leader Magellan Buys Rockwell International Driver Information Systems Group; Targets the $1 Billion Private-Passenger-Vehicle Navigation Market ,” news release, August 4, 1997, LexisNexis Academic.

  86. Business Wire, “Satellite Navigation Leader Magellan Buys Rockwell International Driver Information Systems Group. ”

  87. Business Wire, “Magellan Systems Corp. Forms U.K. Subsidiary, Expands European Marketing and Sales ,” news release, December 18, 1991, LexisNexis Academic; MiTAC International Corp., “Magellan: About Us ,” http://www.magellangps.com/About-Us (accessed May 17, 2012).

  88. Business Wire, “Magellan Systems Corp. forms U.K. Subsidiary. ”

  89. Trimble Navigation Ltd., “Company History ,” http://www.trimble.com/corporate/about_history.aspx (accessed May 14, 2012).

  90. Business Wire, “Trimble Navigation Limited Completes Initial Public Offering ,” news release, July 20, 1990, LexisNexis Academic.

  91. John T. McQueen, “Life Is a Box of Satellites ,” InternetWeek, August 14, 1995, 54, LexisNexis Academic.

  92. Trimble Navigation Ltd., “Company History. ”

  93. Amy Gilroy, “Car Navigation Market Gaining Speed ,” TWICE, January 2004, http://www.twice.com/article/254755-Car_Navigation_Market_Gaining_Speed.php.

  94. Gilroy, “Car Navigation Market Gaining Speed. ”

  95. “2003–2004 Market Share Reports by Category ,” TWICE, January 6, 2005, http://www.twice.com/article/2447632003_2004_

  Market_Share_Reports_By_Category.php.

  96. “2003–2004 Market Share Reports by Category. ”

  97. Amy Gilroy, “Navigation Sales Still Climbing ,” TWICE, January 6, 2005, http://www.twice.com/article/235087-Navigation_Sales_Still_Climbing.php.

  98. Gilroy, “Navigation Sales Still Climbing. ”

  99. “2005 Market Share Reports by Category ,” TWICE, January 5, 2006, http://www.twice.com/article/2557292005_Market_

  Share_Reports_By_Category.php.

  100. “2005 Market Share Reports by Category. ”

  101. Garmin Ltd., 2000 Annual Report (Grand Cayman, Cayman Islands, 2001), 6.

  102. Garmin Ltd., 2000 Annual Report, 8.

  103. Garmin Ltd., 2000 Annual Report, 5, 14.

  104. Garmin Ltd., 2012 Annual Report (Schaffhausen, Switzerland, 2012), 11.

  105. Garmin Ltd., 2012 Annual Report, 11.

  106. This entire account of TomTom’s corporate history is from TomTom, “History ,” December 2010, http://corporate.tomtom.com/history.cfm; and TomTom International BV, 2013 Annual Report (Amsterdam, 2013), 78–79.

  107. Amy Gilroy, “Deluge of Portable GPS Debuts for Fall ,” TWICE, October 9, 2006, http://www.twice.com/article/248069-Deluge_Of_Portable_GPS_Debuts_For_Fall.php.

  108. Gilroy, “Deluge of Portable GPS Debuts. ”

  109. Doug Olenick, “Holiday Sales Season Saw Slow Steady Growth: NPD ,” TWICE, December 18, 2006, http://www.twice.com/article/250339Holiday_Sales_

  Season_Saw_Slow_Steady_Start_NPD.php.

  110. Amy Gilroy, “PNDs Get Computer, Cellular Upgrades ,” TWICE, January 7, 2008, http://www.twice.com/article/257622-PNDs_Get_Computer_Cellular_Upgrades.php.

  111. Gilroy, “PNDs Get Computer, Cellular Upgrades ”; Amy Gilroy, “Garmin Tops TomTom in Worldwide PNDs ,” TWICE, March 19, 2008, http://www.twice.com/article/262209-Garmin_Tops_TomTom_In_Worldwide_PNDs.php.

  112. Gilroy, “Garmin Tops TomTom in Worldwide PNDs. ”

  113. Walter S. Mossberg, “A New Device Makes Your No.@*! Cell Phone a Little Bit Smarter ,” Wall Street Journal, June 24, 1999, ProQuest.

  114. Dawn C. Chmielewski, “Map Services: Don’t Try This While Driving ,” San Jose Mercury News, November 7, 2005, LexisNexis.

  115. Amy Gilroy, “Dealers Resent Snub by Apple
at iPhone Launch ,” TWICE, July 2, 2007, http://www.twice.com/article/263215Dealers_

  Resent_Snub_By_Apple_At_iPhone_Launch.php.

  116. Greg Tarr, “iPhone Becomes AT&T’s No. 1 Phone ,” TWICE, October 19, 2007, http://www.twice.com/article/245688-iPhone_Becomes_AT_T_s_No_1_Phone.php.

  117. Amy Gilroy, “Smartphones Capture Almost 20% of Cellphone Market ,” TWICE, September 8, 2008, http://www.twice.com/article/240887Smartphones_

  Capture_Almost_20_Of_Cellphone_Market.php.

  118. Gilroy, “Smartphones Capture Almost 20% of Cellphone Market. ”

  119. Amy Gilroy, “iPhone Attracts Plenty of GPS-Related Apps ,” TWICE, August 25, 2009, http://www.twice.com/article/328762-iPhone_Attracts_Plenty_Of_GPS_Related_Apps.php.

  120. Gilroy, “iPhone Attracts Plenty of GPS-Related Apps. ”

  121. Janice Partyka, “Hitting the Mainstream ,” GPS World, May 2009, 18, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost; Gilroy, “iPhone Attracts Plenty of GPS-Related Apps. ”

  122. Walter S. Mossberg, “Motorola’s Droid Is Smart Success for Verizon Users ,” Wall Street Journal, November 5, 2009, ProQuest.

  123. Roger Cheng and Niraj Sheth, “Motorola’s Droid Makes Its Debut ,” Wall Street Journal, October 29, 2009, ProQuest.

  124. Gustav Sandstrom, “Nokia Launches Free Navigation Services ,” Wall Street Journal, January 21, 2010, ProQuest.

  125. David Barkholz and Leslie J. Allen, “Rivalry Heats Up in Navigation Device Market ,” Automotive News, February 1, 2010, MasterFILE Complete, EBSCOhost.

  126. Business Wire, “PND Vendors Shifting Strategies. ”

  127. Joseph Palenchar, “iSuppli: Smartphone Impact Seen on In-Vehicle Systems ,” TWICE, September 13, 2010, http://www.twice.com/article/457033-iSuppli_Smartphone_Impact_Seen_On_In_Vehicle_Systems.php.

  128. Palenchar, “iSuppli. ”

  129. Archibald Preuschat and Anton Troianovski, “Smartphones Sting TomTom ,” Wall Street Journal, June 28, 2011, ProQuest; Berg Insight, “Mobile Navigation Services and Devices—5th Edition, Executive Summary ,” http://www.berginsight.com/ReportPDF/Summary/bi-mns5-sum.pdf (accessed June 10, 2012).

  130. Berg Insight, “Mobile Navigation Services and Devices. ”

  131. Clement J. Driscoll, “Locating Wireless 911 Callers Is Goal of Industry Associations ,” Radio Communications Report, September 19, 1994, LexisNexis Academic.