July 1914: Countdown to War
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————, with Ernest R. May. “An Identity of Opinion: Historians and July 1914.” Journal of Modern History 79 (June 2007): 335–387.
Yasamee, F. A. K. “Ottoman Empire.” In Decisions for War, 1914, edited by Keith Wilson. New York: St. Martin’s, 1995.
Zweig, Stefan. The World of Yesterday: An Autobiography by Stefan Zweig. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1943.
INDEX
Adlerberg (General), 194, 203, 209
Aehrenthal, Alois Lexa von, 4, 322
Albertini, Luigi, 245
Albert I of Belgium, 324, 361, 373
Alexandra (tsarina), 159–160
Alexandria (yacht), 147–148, 164, 166
Alexis, tsarevich, 159, 160
Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, 148, 155
Apis. See Dimitrijevitch, Dragutin (“Apis”)
Artamonov, Viktor, 50–51
Asquith, Herbert Henry, 328, 329, 330
on German diplomacy, 279
Home Rule and, 71, 77, 250
information from Churchill on naval premobilization, 251
news of invasion of Belgium and, 374
response to news of imminent war in Europe, 313
support for intervention/war, 281, 331, 332, 356, 358, 360, 363, 364, 365
Assassination of Franz Ferdinand, 20
Austrian response to, 28–29, 30–46
British response to, 68–69, 77
car traveled in, 19
as cause of First World War, 384–390
European response to, 48
first attempt, 14–15
German response to, 78–80, 85–86
investigation into, 92–94, 106–107, 120, 177
locations of assassins, 12–14
motivation of Serbs involved, 390–391
planning, 6–13
response in Belgrade following, 29
route of motorcade in Sarajevo, 11–13
routes taken by assassins to Sarajevo, 9
Russian response to, 48–49, 55–61
weapon used, 18
Austria-Hungary
alliance with Germany, 40
assassination as factor in lead-up to First World War, 386
declaration of war on Serbia, 230, 244–246, 249, 396–397, 400–401
declaration would not annex Serbian territory, 324–325
decline as European power, 37, 40
general mobilization, 326
isolation of, 84–85
mobilization, 115, 202, 218–220, 248–249, 267, 287, 289, 326
need for German support/approval, 42, 45–46
response among government officials to assassination, 30–46
response in Vienna to news of assassination, 28–29
responsibility for First World War, 391–393, 400–401
shelling of Belgrade, 269, 270
Tisza and demands on Serbia, 110–111, 112–113, 115, 120–121
war councils, 106–113, 136–144, 325–326
See also Berchtold, Leopold von; Franz Josef I; Tisza, Stefan
Austrian ultimatum to Serbia
British and French knowledge of, 155
delay in presenting, 122–124
delivery of, 170–171, 172–175
French and Russian response to, 169–170
Sazonov on, 157–158
Sazonov’s rejection of terms, 186–190
Serbian reply to, 197–200, 232–233
timeline for, 137
Austro-Serbian conflict, outcome scenarios, 233–234
Balfour, Arthur, 328
Balkan League (Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro), 25, 44, 84
Balkans (c. 1914), map of, 26
Balkan Wars (1912–1913), 25, 47, 384, 388
Bark, Peter, 178, 183, 184–185
Barrère, Camille, 328
Battle of the Marne, 383
Bazili, Nikolai, 292
Beauchamp, William, 364, 365
Belgium
British agreement to defend if German armies invaded, 73–74
British insistence on respect for neutrality of, 315, 323–324, 333, 360, 368, 372
German invasion of, 352, 371, 373–374, 377, 383
German invasion of, as a cause of First World War, 401–402
German plans to march through, 278–279, 318
German request to allow free passage of troops, 339, 360–363
mobilization, 275, 355
Below-Selaske, Klaus von, 356, 360–362
Benckendorff, Alexander
direct talks between Austria and Russia and, 213, 249
four-power mediation plan and, 205–206
Grey’s speech to House of Commons and, 365
notice of Russian general mobilization, 303–304
request over British dreadnoughts, 74–75
Berchtold, Leopold von,
assassination as pretext for settling accounts with Serbia, 61
attempts to hide Austrian intentions regarding Serbia, 125–129, 136–137
belief that preparations still secret, 167–168
belief that Russia would not engage on Serbians’ behalf, 48
Bethmann’s irresolution and, 306n
confrontation between Szápàry and Sazonov and, 167–168
Conrad and, 32–35, 218
control over contents of ultimatum, 141–144
declaration of war on Serbia and, 237, 244–246, 249, 400–401
delay in presenting ultimatum and, 124
desire to declare war, 218–219
determination of Russian intentions and, 133–134
German support for war with Serbia and, 41–42, 45–46, 86, 90–91, 94
hedging on war in event of Serbian rejection of ultimatum, 202–203
informing Germans of Austrian response to Serbia, 95–96
instructions for delivery of Austrian notes to Berlin, 96–97
making case for war against Serbia, 107–109, 111–113, 116, 120–121
meeting with Franz Josef over demands on Serbia, 116–117
meeting with Lützow, 126–127, 128
mobilization and, 115, 325–326
news of Serbian rejection of ultimatum and, 202
photograph of, 27
reassurance of German support, 236
rejection of mediation, 245
response to assassination, 27–28, 30–31
responsibility for First World War, 392, 394–395, 396–397
Second Balkan War and, 84
second war council and, 140
timing of Serbian ultimatum and, 123–124, 130–131
Tisza and, 31, 115–116
Tschirschky and, 218
ultimatum timetable and delivery, 170–171
Berchtold, Nandine von, 27
Berliner Lokal-Anzeiger (newspaper), 304
Berliner Tageblatt (newspaper), 72
Berthelot, Philippe, 325
Bertie, Francis, 323, 348
Bertrab, Hermann von, 105
Bethmann Hollweg, Martha, 103
Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von, 45, 80
audience with Goschen over Russian mobilization, 308–309
border violations by French troops and, 370
breach with England and, 233–234
British neutrality and, 274–275, 276–281, 343, 377–379
confirmation of Russian mobilization, 286–288, 309
declaration of war on France and, 350–351
distrust of by those pressing for war, 102–103
events leading to declaration of war on Russia and, 337–347
failure to gather and present information on European response to ultimatum, 228–229, 230–232
First Balkan War and, 84
German mobilization and, 311–312
German responsibility for movement towards war and, 234–235, 237
“halt in
Belgrade” proposal and, 252–255, 256–257, 306
information on European response to ultimatum, 223–224
on invasion of Belgium, 377
irresolution of, 306
keeping Serbian reply to ultimatum from kaiser, 243–244
loss of control over events, 352–353
mediation plans and, 235–238, 281
meeting with Moltke and Falkenhayn on mobilization measures, 267–268
notice to Britain of German mobilization, 329
photograph of, 103
protest over British-Russian naval talks, 72
rapprochement with England, 90, 102
rebuke by kaiser, 251
refusal to warn Russia against mobilization, 254–255
responsibility for First World War, 393–394
speech on war to Reichstag, 376–378
support for Austrian action, 104–105, 109
Turkey and, 353–354
wife’s death and, 103–104
Wilhelm II and, 224–227
Bienerth, Karl von, 289–290
Bienvenu-Martin, Jean-Baptiste, 195, 262
Biliński, Leon von, 4, 31, 51, 109, 137
bin Laden, Osama, 391
Bismarck, Otto von, 32, 40, 81–82
Black Hand, 7–8, 17, 25, 33, 49, 212, 390
Boisdeffre, Raoul de, 400
Bonar Law, Andrew, 328, 332, 350, 357, 358, 363
Boppe, Jules August, 198, 199
Bosnia-Herzegovina, annexation of, 3–4, 25, 186–187
Bosnian Crisis (1908–1909). See First Bosnian Crisis
Breslau (cruiser), 380–381
Brideshead Revisited (Waugh), 364n
Britain
agreement to defend the Channel, 359
assassination of Franz Ferdinand as factor in lead-up to First World War, 385–386
France and Russia as allies in war, 59–60, 390
German complaint about Russian mobilization, 214–216
German desire for neutrality of, 274–275, 276–281
German invasion of Belgium and, 278–279, 374
Grey in aftermath of speech, 371–372
Home Rule crisis, 69–70, 72, 250, 385–386
insistence on respect of Belgian neutrality, 73–74, 323–324, 333, 360, 368, 372
mobilization, 364–365
naval agreement with France, 72–73, 402
naval talks with Russia and France, 72–74
noninterventionists vs. interventionists in, 280–281, 314, 331–333, 356–360, 369, 402
obligations to France, 359, 366–369, 402
obligations to Russia, 59–60
offer of neutrality, 310–311, 341–345, 347–349
premobilization of navy, 229, 232, 239–240
resignations over war, 363–364
response to assassination, 68–69, 77
response to German and Russian mobilization, 328–333
response to news of imminent war in Europe, 312–316
Russian mobilization and, 181–182, 238–240, 328–333, 356
See also Buchanan, George; Churchill, Winston; Grey, Edward
British dreadnoughts, 60–61, 74, 315–316, 380, 381, 388
Brück (Consul), 246, 286
Buchanan, George
British neutrality and, 279–280
failure to report Russian mobilization, 356
at Franco-Russian summit, 154–155
inept reporting of, 403
meeting with Sazonov on Russian mobilization, 194–195
obliviousness to Russian mobilization, 246, 247–248, 249
refusal to sanction war, 181–182
on Russian mobilization, 238–239
on Russian reaction to assassination, 56
Sazanov claim of German mobilization and, 299–300
Sazonov’s uneasiness with Austrian ultimatum, 134
telegram from George V and, 330
Bulgaria, 41, 110, 111, 353, 383, 389
Bülow, Bernhard von, 82, 83
Bundesrat, 80
Bunsen, Maurice de, 127–129
Burns, John, 358, 359, 360, 364, 402
Bützkow, K. E., 175
Caillaux, Henriette, 63, 64, 65
Caillaux, Joseph, 62–64, 66
rivalry with Poincaré, 64–67
Caillaux, Mme, 146
Caillaux scandal/trial, 62–64, 65–66, 68, 69, 251, 385
Calmette, Gaston, 63, 65, 66, 67, 322
Cambon, Jules
on Austrian mobilization, 326
confirmation of Russian mobilization, 318–320
German mobilization news and, 304
return to Berlin, 370–371
on significance of Russian mobilization, 294
Cambon, Paul
allegation of German invasion of France and, 305
British agreement to defend the Channel, 359
Grey on Russian mobilization and, 314–315
Grey’s speech to House of Commons and, 365, 366
naval alliance with Britain and, 73, 74, 402
offer of British neutrality and, 348
report to Grey on invasion of Luxembourg, 357
request that Britain ask Austria to suspend military measures, 265
response to idea of mediation, 204–205, 206
Cambrun, Charles de, 292
Capelle, Eduard von, 105
Carlotti di Ribarbella, Carl, 131
Carnet B, 323
Cato the Elder, 24
Censorship, of Russia press, 208–209
Chabrinovitch, Nedjelko
assassination day, 12–13, 14–15
confession of, 92
planning assassination, 6–11
Chelius, Oskar von, 194, 203–204, 209, 224, 275
Chotek, Sophie, 1, 2–3, 30. See also Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg
Chubrilovitch, Vaso, 12–13, 14
Chubrilovitch, Veljko, 8–10, 14
Churchill, Winston, 206, 328
Curragh Incident and, 69–70
Home Rule crisis and, 69–70, 72, 385–386
navy at Straits of Dover and, 260
on outbreak of First World War, 383
photograph of, 75
premobilization of fleet and, 229, 232, 239–240, 251, 280, 364
refusal to block delivery of British dreadnoughts, 75, 76
response to assassination, 76–77
response to news of imminent war in Europe, 313, 314, 315–316
seeking direction after Grey’s speech, 371
support for intervention/war, 331–332, 358
war and, 403
Ciganovitch, Milan, 7–8
Common army, ethnic makeup of, 33–34, 46
Confederated French trade unions (CGT), 375
Conrad von Hötzendorf, Franz
Austrian mobilization schedule and, 218–219
Austrian ultimatum to Serbia and, 115, 117
belief that Russia would not engage on Serbians’ behalf, 48
desire for war with Serbia, 24–25, 27, 32–35, 42, 387
making case for war against Serbia, 106, 107–108, 109
mediation and, 237
mobilization and, 115, 122–123, 171–172, 202–203, 253, 325
Moltke instructions to, 289–290
on need for German support, 40–41
response to assassination, 23–24, 32–35
responsibility for First World War, 392, 393
on “vacation leave,” 125
visit to Sarajevo June 1914, 1, 4
war councils and, 137, 138–139, 141
Continental war, 233–234
Crackanthorpe, Dayrell, 197, 199
Crimean War, 384, 389
Crowe, Eyre, 278–279
Curragh Incident, 69–71
Czernin, Otto, 56–57, 133
Daily Mail (newspaper), 70
Daily Telegraph (newspaper), 82, 83, 98
Danilov, Yuri, 292
Defenders, modern warf
are and, 384
Delcassé, Théophile, 59
Derby, Lord, 368
Descos, Léon, 156–157
Dimitrijevitch, Dragutin (“Apis”), 6, 7, 28, 49, 50, 197, 200, 391
Dobrorolskii, Sergei
general mobilization and, 272, 302, 304
partial mobilization and, 192–193, 397
readiness for mobilization, 179–180, 298
revocation of general mobilization order, 273
understanding that mobilization meant war, 396, 400
Doumergue, Gaston, 146, 149, 257
Dreadnoughts
British, 60–61, 74–76, 315–316, 380, 381, 388
German, 353, 380–381
Turkey and, 353, 388, 389
Dumaine, Alfred, 169
Ebener (General), 335
Edward VII, 43
Effendi, Fehim, 1, 11, 15
Eggeling, Bernhard von, 209, 221
Enver, Pasha, 353
Eulenberg, August, 226–227
Europe, 1914 map of, 40–41
Eyschen, Paul, 354–355
Falkenhayn, Erich von, 404
as advisor to Wilhelm II, 100, 101
British offer of neutrality and, 343
delaying Kriegsgefahrzustand, 274, 276
German mobilization request and, 341
German army’s precautionary measures and, 267
inaugurating Kriegsgefahrzustand, 309, 311
preventive war and, 387
on war as fait accompli, 350, 351
Fay, Sidney, 201
Ferry, Abel, 263
Le Figaro (newspaper), 63
First Balkan War, 25, 49, 51–52, 83–84, 178
First Bosnian Crisis, 4, 24, 25, 47, 322, 384, 388
First World War
assassination of Franz Ferdinand and, 384–390
beginning of, 383–384, 400
responsibility for causing, 384–405
Fleet (Naval) Week at Kiel, 76, 90
Fleischmann (Captain), 288–289
Forgách, Johann, 126
France
allegation of German invasion, 354, 375
assassination of Franz Ferdinand as factor in lead-up to First World War, 385
British obligations to, 366–368
Caillaux trial and, 62–64, 65–66, 68, 69, 251, 385
death of Jaurès, 322–323
debate over war, 375–376
early battles in war, 383
Franco-Russian summit, 145–166
German declaration of war against, 370–371
knowledge of Russian mobilization, 262–263, 264–265
military alliance with Russia, 40
military strength of, 404
mobilization, 267, 268, 302, 304–305, 316–325, 327–328, 334–337
naval agreement with Britain, 72–73, 402
neutrality of Belgium and, 323–324
preliminary mobilization, 267, 268
public readiness for war, 261, 263–264
response to early Russian mobilization, 290–296