14. Howard K. Beale, The Diary of Gideon Welles, Secretary of the Navy under Lincoln and Johnson, 3 vols. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1960), 2:282.
13. REVOLUTION
1. James M. McPherson, The Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 818–19; Nicholas Onuf and Peter Onuf, Nations, Markets, and War: Modern History and the American Civil War (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2006).
2. Grant Memoirs, 303.
3. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 854; Richard E. Beringer, Herman Hattaway, Archer Jones, and William N. Still, Why the South Lost the Civil War (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986), 451–81; Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones, How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 721–32. For the recent estimate of 750,000 dead, see Guy Gugliotta, “New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll,” New York Times, March 4, 2012.
4. For the most comprehensive overview of Reconstruction, see Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988). See also Kenneth Stampp, The Era of Reconstruction (New York: Knopf, 1965); Dan Carter, When the War Was Over: The Failure of Self-Reconstruction in the South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1985); Brooks D. Simpson, The Reconstruction Presidents (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).
5. Erwin S. Bradley, The Triumph of Militant Republicanism (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1964); John G. Sprout, “The Best Men”: Liberal Reformers in the Gilded Age (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968); Michael G. McGerr, The Decline of Popular Politics: The American North, 1865–1928 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
6. Charles Sumner, His Complete Works (New York: Negro University Press, 1969), 12:468–69; Foner, Reconstruction, 236; George W. Julian, Speeches on Political Questions (New York: Hurd and Houghton, 1872), 269–70.
7. Roger L. Ransom and Richard Sutch, One Kind of Freedom: The Economic Consequences of Emancipation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1977); Claude F. Oubre, Forty Acres and a Mule: The Freedmen’s Bureau and Black Landownership (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978).
8. Foner, Reconstruction, 56.
9. George C. Rable, But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984), 224.
10. William S. McFeely, Yankee Stepfather: O. O. Howard and the Freedmen (New Haven CT: Yale University Press, 1968).
11. Foner, Reconstruction, 152.
12. Foner, Reconstruction, 145.
13. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1975), 382.
14. Eric L. McKitrick, Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960); Michael Perman, Reunion without Compromise: The South and Reconstruction, 1865–1868 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973); Albert E. Castel, The Presidency of Andrew Johnson (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1979); James F. Sefton, Andrew Johnson and the Uses of Constitutional Power (New York: Little, Brown, 1980); Hans L. Trefousse, Andrew Johnson: A Biography (New York: W. W. Norton, 1989).
15. M. A. De Wolfe Howe, ed., The Home Letters of General Sherman (New York: Scribners’ Sons, 1909), 373.
16. David H. Donald, Charles Sumner and the Rights of Man (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970), 237–38.
17. Leroy P. Graf and Ralph W. Haskins, eds., The Papers of Andrew Johnson (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1972), 3:165, 7:226; Trefousse, Andrew Johnson, 236; John Hope Franklin, Reconstruction after the Civil War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961), 42.
18. Trefousse, Andrew Johnson, 247.
19. McKitrick, Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction, 428–38.
20. James M. McPherson, Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 16–18.
21. Ralph Andreano, ed., The Economic Impact of the American Civil War (Cambridge MA: Schenkman, 1962), 240–42, 227, 236; Donald B. Dodd and Wynelle S. Dodd, Historical Statistics of the South, 1790–1970 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press,1973); Gavin Wright, The Political Economy of the Cotton South: Households, Markets, and Wealth in the Nineteenth Century (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978); Lee Soltow, Men and Wealth in the United States, 1850–1870 (New Haven CT: Yale University Press, 1975); Claudia D. Goldin and Frank D. Lewis, “The Economic Cost of the American Civil War: Estimates and Implications,” Journal of Economic History 35 (1975): 299–326.
22. Foner, Reconstruction, 255.
23. Richard H. Abbott, The Republican Party and the South, 1855–1877: The First Southern Strategy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986).
24. Foner, Reconstruction, 9.
25. Foner, Reconstruction, 352, 355; Michael Perman, The Road to Redemption: Southern Politics, 1869–1879 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984).
26. Hans L. Trefousse, The Impeachment of a President: Andrew Johnson, the Blacks, and Reconstruction (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1975); Michael Les Benedict, The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999); David O. Steward, Impeached: The Trial of President Andrew Johnson and the Fight for Lincoln’s Legacy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2009).
27. Jean Edward Smith, Grant (New York: Touchstone, 2001), 457.
14. NIGHT RIDERS AND BLACK CODES
1. First Inaugural Address, March 4, 1869, in The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, ed. John Y. Simons et al. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1967–), 19:139–42.
2. Jean Edward Smith, Grant (New York: Touchstone, 2001), 509.
3. William Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 1869–1879 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979); Terry L. Seip, The South Returns to Congress: Men, Economic Measures, and Intersectional Relationships, 1858–1879 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1983); Michael Perman, The Road to Redemption: Southern Politics, 1869–1879 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984); Richard H. Abbott, The Republican Party and the South, 1855–1877: The First Southern Strategy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986).
4. Allen W. Trelease, White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction (New York: Harper and Row, 1971); George C. Rable, But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984).
5. Ulysses Grant to George Thomas, July 6, 1866, in Simons et al., Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, 16:230–31.
6. Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 426, 129; Rable, But There Was No Peace, 86.
7. Trelease, White Terror, 43–44, 155–79.
8. Foner, Reconstruction, 454.
9. James McPherson, Ordeal by Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (New York: McGraw Hill, 2010), 560; Everette Swinney, “Enforcing the Fifteenth Amendment, 1870–1877,” Journal of Southern History 28 (1963): 203–7.
10. W. E. B. DuBois, Black Reconstruction in America (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1935), 30.
11. Foner, Reconstruction, 31.
12. Harold M. Hyman, A More Perfect Union: The Impact of the Civil War and Reconstruction on the Constitution (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1973); Robert J. Kaczorowski, The Politics of Judicial Interpretation: The Federal Courts, Department of Justice, 1866–1876 (New York: Fordham University Press, 1985).
13. Robert D. Marcus, The Grand Old Party: Political Structure in the Gilded Age, 1880–1896 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971).
14. Dee Brown, The Year of the Century: 1876 (New York: Scribners’ Sons, 1966), 342.
15. Smith, Grant, 479.
16. Ari Hoogenboom, Outlawing the Spoils: A History of the Civil Service Reform Movement, 1865–1883 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961).
17. Alexander B. Callow, The Tweed Ring
(Westport CT: Greenwood, 1981); C. K. Yearley, The Money Machine: The Breakdown and Reform of Government and Party Finance in the North, 1860–1920 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1970); Margaret S. Thompson, The “Spider Web”: Congress and Lobbying in the Age of Grant (Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press, 1983).
18. Chester Destler, American Radicalism, 1865–1901 (New York: Octagon Books, 1963).
19. Ellen C. Dubois, Feminism and Suffrage: The Emergence of an Independent Women’s Movement in America, 1848–1869 (Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press, 1978); William Leach, True Love and Perfect Union: The Feminist Reform of Sex and Society (Middletown CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1989).
20. Barbara Epstein, The Politics of Domesticity: Women, Evangelism, and Temperance in Nineteenth-Century America (Middletown CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1981).
21. Ralph Andreano, ed., The Economic Impact of the American Civil War (Cambridge MA: Schenkman, 1962).
22. C. Vann Woodward, Reunion and Reaction: The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction (Boston: Little, Brown, 1951), 63.
23. Ray Allen Billington and Martin Ridge, Westward Expansion: A History of the American Frontier (New York: Macmillan, 1982), 573–90.
24. Rendigs Fels, American Business Cycles, 1865–1897 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959); Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Capital, 1848–1875 (New York: New American Library, 1979); Harry Screiber, Harold Vatter, and Harold Faulkner, American Economic History (New York: Harper, 1976), 202.
25. Lee Benson, Merchants, Farmers, and Railroads: Railroad Regulation and New York Politics, 1850–1887 (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1955).
26. Foner, Reconstruction, 590.
27. C. Vann Woodward, review of The Confederate Nation, 1861–1865, by Emory M. Thomas, New Republic, March 17, 1979, 25–27. For an excellent analysis of the conservative counterrevolution, see C. Vann Woodward, The Origins of the New South, 1877–1913 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1961).
28. Smith, Grant, 571.
29. Foner, Reconstruction, 604.
15. FRONTIERS
1. For perhaps the best analysis of this theme, see Richard Slotkin’s brilliant trilogy: Regeneration through Violence: The Mythology of the American Frontier, 1600–1860 (New York: Harper Perennial, 1973); The Fatal Environment: The Myth of the Frontier in the Age of Industrialization (Middletown CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1985); Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992).
2. Robert F. Berkhofer, Salvation and the Savage: An Analysis of Protestant Missions and American Indian Response, 1787–1862 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1965); Dale Van Every, Disinherited: The Lost Birthright of the American Indian (New York: Morrow, 1966); Bernard W. Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction: Jeffersonian Philanthropy and the American Indian (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973); Brian W. Dippie, The Vanishing American: White Attitudes and U.S. Indian Policy (Middletown CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1982); Robert M. Utley, The Indian Frontier of the American West, 1846–1890 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984); Francis Paul Prucha, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indian (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986); Philip Weeks, Farewell My Nation: The American Indian and the United States, 1820–1890 (Arlington Heights IL: Harlan Davidson, 1990).
3. William R. Nester, The Arikara War: The First Plains Indian War, 1823 (Missoula MT: Mountain Press, 2001).
4. Robert M. Utley, Frontiersmen in Blue: The United States Army and the Indian, 1848–1865 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1981); Robert M. Utley, Frontier Regulars: The United States Army and the Indians, 1866–1891 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984).
5. Interior Secretary Columbus Delano testimony, January 10, 1874, in U.S. House Committee on Military Affairs, Report to Accompany the Bill (H.R. 2546), House Report 384 (Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1874), 99, 169.
6. Speech to Indian Chiefs, March 27, 1863, Lincoln Works, 6:151–52.
7. Kenneth Carley, The Dakota War of 1862: Minnesota’s Other Civil War (Minneapolis: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1976).
8. Carley, Dakota War of 1862, 6.
9. David A. Nichols, Lincoln and the Indians: Civil War Policy and Politics (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1978), 87.
10. Carol Chomsky, “The United States–Dakota War Trials: A Study in Military Justice,” Stanford Law Review 43, no. 1 (November 1990): 1–26.
11. Nichols, Lincoln and the Indians, 118.
12. Ulysses S. Grant, First Address to Congress, December 6, 1869, in A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, ed. James D. Richardson, 20 vols. (Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1897–1917), 7:38.
13. Ulysses S. Grant, Second Inaugural Address, March 4, 1873, in Richardson, Compilation of the Messages and Papers, 7:222.
14. Henry F. Fritz, The Movement for Indian Assimilation, 1860–1890 (Westport CT: Greenwood, 1963); Robert Winston Mardock, Reformers and the American Indian (Columbia: University of Missouri Press,1971); Robert H. Keller, American Protestantism and United States Indian Policy, 1869–1882 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983).
15. Glyndon Van Deuson, William Henry Seward (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967); David H. Donald, Charles Sumner and the Rights of Man (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970).
16. Ulysses S. Grant to George H. Stuart, October 26, 1872, in The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, ed. John Y. Simons et al. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1967–), 23:270.
17. Allan Nevins, Hamilton Fish: The Inner History of the Grant Administration (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1937).
18. Louis A. Pérez, Cuba between Empires, 1878–1902 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1982); José M. Hernández, Cuba and the United States: Intervention and Militarism, 1868–1933 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1993); Louis A. Pérez, Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy, 2nd ed. (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1997).
19. Nevins, Hamilton Fish, 191–92.
20. William Javier Nelson, Almost a Territory: America’s Attempt to Annex the Dominican Republic (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1990).
21. David P. Crook, The Alabama Claims (Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press, 1975); Reginald Stuart, United States Expansionism and British North America, 1775–1871 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988).
22. Herman Melville, Moby-Dick, ed. Harrison Hayford and Hershel Parker (New York: W. W. Norton, 1967); Michael Paul Rogin, Subversive Genealogy: The Politics and Art of Herman Melville (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1983); John Bryant, A Companion to Melville Studies (Westport CT: Greenwood Press, 1986); Andrew Delbanco, Melville: His World and Work (New York: Alfred Knopf, 2005); Clare L. Spark, Hunting Captain Ahab: Psychological Warfare and the Melville Revival (Kent OH: Kent State University Press, 2006).
23. Mark Twain, “The Innocents Abroad” and “Roughing It” (New York: Library of America, 1984); Everett Emerson, Mark Twain: A Literary Life (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000); Fred Kaplan, The Singular Mark Twain: A Biography (New York: Doubleday, 2003); Hamlin L. Hill, ed., Mark Twain, The Gilded Age and Later Novels (New York: Library of America, 2002).
24. Mark Van Doren, ed., The Portable Walt Whitman (New York: Penguin, 1973).
25. Louis Menand, The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2001).
26. Ralph Waldo Emerson, The Essential Writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson (New York: Modern Library, 2000).
27. Hampton Slides, Blood and Thunder: The Epic Story of Kit Carson and the Conquest of the American West (New York: Anchor Books, 2006), 311–21. Here again, see Richard Slotkin’s brilliant trilogy: Regeneration through Violence, Fatal Environment, and Gunfighter Nation.
28. Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (New Haven CT: Yale University Press, 1982), 115, 1
14.
16. EIGHTEEN SEVENTY-SIX
1. For overviews, see Robert M. Utley, Frontier Regulars: The United States Army and the Indians, 1866–1891 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984), 236–95; Paul L. Hedren, ed., The Great Sioux War, 1876–77 (Helena: Montana Historical Society Press, 1991); Jerome Greene, ed., Battles and Skirmishes, 1876–1877 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993). For works that provide good overviews but concentrate on Custer’s role, see Stephen Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer: The Parallel Lives of Two American Warriors (New York: Doubleday, 1975); Evan S. Connell, Son of the Morning Star: Custer and the Little Bighorn (San Francisco: North Point Press, 1984); Louise Barnett, Touched by Fire: The Life, Death, and Mythic Afterlife of George Armstrong Custer (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006); James Donovan, A Terrible Glory: Custer and the Little Bighorn; The Last Great Battle of the American West (New York: Little, Brown, 2008).
2. Dee Brown, The Year of the Century: 1876 (New York: Scribners’ Sons, 1966), 14.
3. John Bigelow, ed., The Letters and Literary Memorials of Samuel J. Tilden (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1908), 1:271.
4. Keith Polakoff, The Politics of Inertia: The Election of 1876 and the End of Reconstruction (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1973); C. Vann Woodward, Reunion and Reaction: The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction (Boston: Little, Brown, 1951).
5. Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 570.
6. James McPherson, Ordeal by Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (New York: McGraw Hill, 2010), 588.
7. Rutherford Hayes, The Diary and Letters of Rutherford Birchard Hayes, 5 vols. (Columbus: Ohio State Archeological and Historical Society, 1922–26), 3:47.
8. Foner, Reconstruction, 581.
9. Foner, Reconstruction, 582.
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