Turing's Cathedral

by George Dyson

  see also Office of Naval Research (ONR)

  Nazism, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 10.1, 10.2, 11.1

  Neumann, Herman Alexander

  Neurototal (Alfvén)

  Newark, New Jersey, fm1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4

  New Jersey, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4

  constitution of, 1676

  division of, 1683

  “New Look, The” (in reliability)

  Newman, Lyn, 13.1, 13.2

  Newman, Maxwell H. A. (1897–1984), 5.1, 8.1, 13.1, 13.2, 13.3, 13.4, 13.5, 13.6, 18.1

  on delay-line memory

  New York Times, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3

  New York University

  noncomputable functions, 4.1, 13.1

  Normandie, 10.1, 10.2

  Notestein, Frank W.

  Novaya Zemlya

  NPL, see National Physical Laboratory

  nuclear pulse propulsion

  nuclear weapons, prf.1, 1.1, 4.1, 10.1, 15.1, 15.2, 16.1, 17.1, 17.2

  British contributions to

  and computers, prf.1, prf.2, 1.1, 18.1

  control of, 11.1, 18.1

  design and testing of, 1.1, 4.1, 5.1, 9.1, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3

  effects of, prf.1, 18.1

  opposition to, 6.1, 11.1, 11.2, 18.1

  and Soviet Union, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3

  time scale of

  warnings of, in 1940

  and weather control

  numerical weather prediction, 9.1, 14.1

  as analog computation

  and carbon dioxide

  and climate models

  and control, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3

  as cover for weapons design

  and general circulation models

  and the infinite forecast

  military applications of, 9.1, 9.2

  opposition to, 9.1, 9.2

  and origins of ECP

  short, medium, and long range

  24-hour forecast in 24 hours (1950)

  and unpredictability

  Office of Naval Research (ONR), 5.1, 6.1, 8.1, 8.2, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 11.1, 12.1, 18.1

  Office of Population Research (Princeton University), 10.1, 10.2

  Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), 7.1, 10.1, 11.1

  Official Secrets Act (UK), 5.1, 13.1, 18.1

  Olden, William, 2.1, 3.1

  Olden Farm, ack.1, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 6.1, 13.1

  “On Computable Numbers” (Turing, 1936), prf.1, 5.1, 13.1, 13.2, 13.3, 13.4

  “On a Method of Propulsion of Projectiles by Means of External Nuclear Explosions” (Ulam, 1955)

  “On Distributed Communications” (Baran, 1964)

  “On the Introduction of Transfinite Numbers” (von Neumann, 1923)

  “On the Possibility of Extracting Energy from Gravitational Systems by Navigating Space Vehicles” (Ulam, 1958)

  opacity (to radiation), 11.1, 11.2, 16.1, 16.2

  operating systems, 10.1, 10.2, 12.1

  Oppenheimer, J. Robert (1904–1967), 5.1, 12.1

  and AEC, 1.1, 11.1

  on climate models (1955)

  and ECP, ack.1, 7.1, 8.1, 14.1, 18.1, 18.2

  and IAS, ack.1, 1.1, 3.1, 3.2, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 8.1, 9.1, 18.1

  and Los Alamos, 3.1, 4.1, 10.1, 11.1

  and nuclear weapons, 1.1, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, 15.1, 16.1, 11.5, 18.1

  security hearings, 1.1, 11.1, 14.1, 18.1, 18.2

  Oppenheimer, Katherine (Kitty)

  optical fiber, deployment of, 16.1, 17.1

  ORACLE (Oak Ridge Automatic Computer and Logical Engine)

  Oracle machines (Turing, 1939), 13.1, 13.2

  order codes, ack.1, 1.1, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.2, 10.1, 10.2, 12.1, 16.1

  ORDVAC (Ordnance Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)

  Orient Express, 10.1, 10.2

  origins of life, 12.1, 15.1, 15.2

  oscilloscope, 1.1, 7.1, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3

  Oslo, University of, 12.1, 12.2

  “other party, the” (von Neumann, 1946), 11.1, 17.1, 17.2

  PageRank (Google)

  Palmer Physical Laboratory (Princeton), 9.1, 13.1

  Panofsky, Erwin (1892–1968), 6.1, 8.1

  parasitism, 12.1, 12.2

  Parthia

  patent rights, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1

  Pauli, Wolfgang (1900–1958), 4.1, 10.1

  Pauling, Linus (1901–1994), 8.1, 11.1

  Penn, Admiral Sir William (1621–1670)

  Penn, William (1644–1718)

  Pennsylvania, University of, 5.1, 7.1, 18.1

  Pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN)

  Pergamon Press

  PERM (Programmierbare Elektronische Rechenmaschine München)

  Petty, William (1623–1687)

  Pfeffer, Richard

  Philco 2000 (computer)

  Phillips, Norman A., 8.1, 9.1, 9.2, 14.1, 18.1

  Pittendrigh, Colin S.

  Pitts, Walter (1923–1969)

  plasma, 11.1, 17.1

  Platzman, George (1920–2008)

  Poincaré, Henri, 13.1, 13.2

  Point Source Solution (von Neumann, 1947)

  poker

  Pomerene, James (1920–2008), 5.1, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 10.1, 10.2, 18.1, 18.2

  positive-interlock data transfer

  Post, Emil (1897–1954)

  POST-MORTEM (debugging routine)

  “Preliminary Discussion of the Logical Design of an Electronic Computing Instrument” (Burks, Goldstine, and von Neumann, 1946), 6.1, 6.2, 7.1, 8.1, 13.1, 18.1, 18.2

  preventive (“quick”) war, 6.1, 10.1, 18.1

  Princeton, New Jersey

  battle of (1777)

  beginnings of

  conservatism of

  summer heat of, 2.1, 9.1

  Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory

  Princeton University, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 4.1, 4.2, 7.1, 7.2, 9.1, 10.1, 11.1, 13.1, 14.1

  adopts ECP (1957), 18.1, 18.2

  Principia Mathematica (PM)

  “Probabilistic Logics and the Synthesis of Reliable Organisms from Unreliable Components” (von Neumann, 1952), 7.1, 15.1, 17.1

  Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 13.1, 13.2, 13.3

  Procter, William Cooper (1862–1934)

  Procter Fellowship (Princeton)

  Project Matterhorn

  Project Orion (ARPA)

  Project RAND (U.S. Air Force)

  Project Whirlwind, 8.1, 17.1

  Project Y, see Los Alamos; Manhattan Project “Proposed Electronic Calculator” (Turing, 1946)

  Proving Ground, see Aberdeen Proving Ground (U.S. Army)

  Pugwash disarmament movement

  pulse-frequency coding, 14.1, 17.1

  Pump House Gang, The (Wolfe)

  punched cards, 1.1, 1.2, 10.1, 17.1, 18.1, 18.2

  Nils Barricelli and

  and ENIAC, 5.1, 5.2, 9.1, 10.1, 10.2, 11.1

  and IAS computer

  at Los Alamos, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 11.1, 11.2

  and memory loading time

  punched paper tape, 5.1, 13.1, 13.2, 13.3

  Quakers, see Society of Friends

  quantum mechanics, ack.1, 4.1, 4.2, 6.1, 10.1

  Queen Mary, 8.1, 10.1, 10.2

  Queney, Paul

  Rabi, Isidor (1898–1988)

  Radar, 1.1, 5.1, 7.1

  Radiation Laboratory (MIT), 5.1, 8.1

  Radio Corporation of America, see RCA

  Rajchman, Jan (1911–1989), 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 8.1, 8.2

  and antiaircraft fire control

  and the Computron

  and the ENIAC

  and origins of ECP

  and resistor-matrix memory, 5.1, 5.2

  and the Selectron, 5.1, 8.1

  on stored-program computing

  on universal computation

  RAND Corporation, 8.1, 8.2, 10.1, 11.1, 14.1, 14.2, 15.1, 18.1, 18.2

  random-access memory (RAM), prf.1, prf.2, 1.1, 5.1, 8.1, 15.1, 17.1

&nb
sp; see also memory; Williams (memory) tubes

  random numbers, 1.1, 10.1, 10.2, 12.1, 13.1

  randomness

  Rátz, László (1863–1930)

  RCA (Radio Corporation of America), 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 7.1, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 9.1, 14.1, 18.1, 18.2, 18.3

  and the ENIAC

  and numerical weather prediction

  see also Selectron; Zworykin, Vladimir Kosma

  RDX (plastic explosive)

  read-around ratio (Williams tube)

  Reed, Harry

  Rees, Mina (1902–1997), 8.1, 12.1, 18.1

  refrigerator, computer as

  Reichelderfer, Francis W. (1895–1983)

  Rejewski, Marian

  reliability, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1, 8.2, 12.1, 14.1, 15.1, 18.1

  “Reliable Organizations of Unreliable Elements” (von Neumann, 1951), 7.1, 12.1, 15.1

  Remington Rand, 7.1, 12.1, 18.1

  Reno, Nevada

  resistor-matrix function table(s), 5.1, 5.2, 10.1

  Revelle, Roger, 8.1, 8.2

  Richardson, Lewis Fry (1881–1953), 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 18.1

  Richtmyer, Robert (1910–2002), 4.1, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 11.1, 11.2, 18.1

  on limits to stored-program computing

  on origins of Monte Carlo (code)

  on von Neumann, 4.1, 10.1

  Riefler, Winfield

  RNA (ribonucleic acid)

  Robinson, Jimmy Priestly (1924–1952)

  Robinson, William S.

  Rockafellow, Alice, 6.1, 6.2

  Rockefeller, John D., Jr.

  Rockefeller Foundation, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 4.1, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1, 8.1, 8.2, 10.1

  Rockefeller Institute, 3.1, 3.2

  Rome, University of

  Roosevelt, Franklin D.

  Rosenberg, Jack, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 18.1

  and Julian Bigelow

  and Albert Einstein, 1.1, 18.1

  on IBM

  on John von Neumann, 7.1, 10.1

  on Klári von Neumann

  Rosenberg ground

  Rosenblueth, Arturo (1900–1970)

  Rosenbluth, Marshall (1927–2003), 10.1, 10.2, 11.1

  Rosing, Boris (1869–1933)

  Rossby, Carl-Gustaf (1898–1957), 9.1, 9.2, 9.3

  Rota, Gian-Carlo (1932–1999)

  Rotblat, Joseph (1908–2005)

  Rózycki, Jerzy

  Rubinoff, Morris (1928–2004), 7.1, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 14.1, 18.1

  on Bigelow

  Russell, Bertrand

  Ryan, Meg

  SABRE (Semi-Automatic Business-Related Environment)

  Sachs, Judy

  SAGE (Semi-Automatic Ground Environment), 17.1, 18.1

  Samuelson, Paul

  Santa Fe, New Mexico, 7.1, 10.1, 11.1, 11.2, 18.1

  Sarnoff, David (1891–1971)

  Scherbius, Arthur

  Schlüsselzusatz (cryptographic machine)

  Schriever, Bernard

  Schwarzschild, Martin (1912–1997), 16.1, 18.1

  on von Neumann, 4.1, 4.2

  Scripps Institution of Oceanography, 11.1, 14.1, 18.1

  SEAC (Standards Eastern Automatic Computer), 11.1, 15.1

  search engines, 10.1, 13.1, 13.2, 14.1, 17.1, 17.2

  as analog computers

  Selberg, Atle (1917–2007), 8.1, 12.1

  Selberg, Hedvig (Hedi) Liebermann (1919–1995), 8.1, 8.2, 16.1, 18.1, 18.2

  Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC)

  Selectron, 5.1, 6.1, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 18.1, 18.2

  and numerical weather prediction

  vs. Williams tube

  self-reproducing automata, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 15.1, 15.2, 15.3, 15.4

  propagation of

  sequential analysis

  SETI@home

  set theory, 4.1, 6.1

  Shannon, Claude Elwood (1916–2001), 1.1, 5.1, 7.1, 12.1, 15.1

  shift registers, 6.1, 7.1, 8.1, 8.2

  shock waves, prf.1, 4.1, 4.2, 12.1, 16.1, 16.2

  signal vs. noise, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1, 9.1

  SILLIAC (Sydney ILLIAC)

  Simon, Leslie E., 5.1, 5.2

  Sims, John

  singularity, technological (von Neumann)

  6J6 (vacuum tube), 7.1, 7.2, 8.1, 14.1

  Slutz, Ralph (1917–2005), 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 8.1, 8.2, 11.1, 18.1

  Smagorinsky, Joseph (1924–2005), 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 18.1

  Smagorinsky, Margaret, 9.1, 18.1

  Small-Scale Experimental Machine, Manchester (SSEM), 8.1, 13.1

  Smithsonian Institution

  Smyth, Henry D., 7.1, 18.1

  Snyder, Richard L., 5.1, 18.1

  social justice

  social networks, 14.1, 17.1

  Society of Friends (Quakers), 2.1, 9.1

  Sociological Complexity Theorem (Alfvén)

  software; see also stored-program computing; codes and coding

  solitaire

  Southwell, Sir Robert

  Soviet Union, 6.1, 10.1, 11.1

  and nuclear weapons, 1.1, 1.2

  Special Engineering Detachment (SED, U.S. Army)

  species, origin and end of

  Sperry Corporation

  Sperry Rand, 5.1, 5.2, 7.1

  Springdale Golf Club, 2.1, 3.1, 8.1, 13.1

  Sputnik

  Stahl, Frank, 12.1, 12.2

  Stalin, Joseph

  Stanford Research Institute

  Stapledon, Olaf (1886–1950), 9.1, 12.1

  Statistical Research Group, 7.1, 7.2

  stellar evolution, ack.1, 11.1, 16.1, 18.1

  Stephenson, Neal

  Stewart, Walter W., 3.1, 6.1

  Stibitz, George R., 5.1, 7.1, 8.1

  Stigler, George

  Stockton, Richard

  Stoney, George Johnstone

  Stony Brook (Quaker settlement, 1696), 2.1, 18.1

  storage; see memory (storage)

  stored-program computing

  demonstrated in Manchester (1948)

  and the EDVAC

  and the ENIAC, 5.1, 10.1

  origins of, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 6.1, 13.1, 13.2, 16.1

  Strategic Missiles Evaluation Committee (U.S. Air Force), 1.1, 4.1

  Strauss, Lewis L. (1896–1974), 1.1, 3.1, 5.1, 9.1, 11.1, 11.2, 14.1, 14.2, 17.1, 18.1, 18.2

  and hydrogen bomb, 11.1, 11.2

  and numerical weather prediction

  and von Neumann, 4.1, 14.1

  Strittmatter, Father Anselm

  subroutines, 5.1, 12.1, 13.1, 13.2, 18.1

  Super (bomb), see hydrogen bomb