The Silk Roads: A New History of the World

by Frankopan, Peter

  11R. Segal, Islam’s Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora (New York, 2001), p. 121.

  12Ibn awqal, Kītāb ūrat al-ard, cited by D. Ayalon, ‘The Mamluks of the Seljuks: Islam’s Military Might at the Crossroads’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 6.3 (1996), 312. From this point, I switch from Türk to Turk to distinguish between peoples of the steppes and the ancestors of modern Turkey.

  13W. Scheidel, ‘The Roman Slave Supply’, in K. Bradley, P. Cartledge, D. Eltis and S. Engerman (eds), The Cambridge World History of Slavery, 3 vols (Cambridge, 2011–), 1, pp. 287–310.

  14See F. Caswell, The Slave Girls of Baghdad. The Qiyan in the Early Abbasid Era (London, 2011), p. 13.

  15Tacitus, Annals, 15.69, p. 384.

  16Ibn Bulān, Taqwīm al-ia, cited by G. Vantini, Oriental Sources concerning Nubia (Heidelberg, 1975), pp. 238–9.

  17Kaykāvūs ibn Iskandar ibn Qābūs, ed. and tr. R. Levy, Naīat-nāma known as Qābūs-nāma, (London, 1951), p. 102.

  18Ibid.

  19D. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the Trade of Medieval Europe’, in M. Postan, E. Miller and C. Postan (eds), Cambridge Economic History of Europe: Trade and Industry in the Middle Ages (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1987), p. 417. Also see D. Mishin, ‘The Saqaliba Slaves in the Aghlabid State’, in M. Sebök (ed.), Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU 1996/1997 (Budapest, 1998), pp. 236–44.

  20Ibrāhīm ibn Yaqūb, tr. Lunde and Stone, in Land of Darkness, pp. 164–5. For Prague’s role as a slave centre, D. Třeštík, ‘“Eine große Stadt der Slawen namens Prag”: Staaten und Sklaven in Mitteleuropa im 10. Jahrhundert’, in P. Sommer (ed.), Boleslav II: der tschechische Staat um das Jahr 1000 (Prague 2001), pp. 93–138.

  21Ibn al-Zubayr, Book of Gifts and Rarities, pp. 91–2. See A. Christys, ‘The Queen of the Franks Offers Gifts to the Caliph Al-Muktafi’, in W. Davies and P. Fouracre (eds), The Languages of Gift in the Early Middle Ages (Cambridge, 2010), pp. 140–71.

  22Ibrāhīm ibn Ya‘qūb, pp. 162–3.

  23R. Naismith, ‘Islamic Coins from Early Medieval England’, Numismatic Chronicle 165 (2005), 193–222; idem, ‘The Coinage of Offa Revisited’, British Numismatic Journal 80 (2010), 76–106.

  24M. McCormick, ‘New Light on the “Dark Ages”: How the Slave Trade Fuelled the Carolingian Economy’, Past & Present 177 (2002), 17–54; also J. Henning, ‘Slavery or Freedom? The Causes of Early Medieval Europe’s Economic Advancement’, Early Medieval Europe 12.3 (2003), 269–77.

  25Ibn Khurradādhbih, ‘Book of Roads and Kingdoms’, p. 111.

  26Ibn awqal, Kītāb ūrat al-ard, tr. Lunde and Stone, ‘Book of the Configuration of the Earth’, in Land of Darkness, p. 173.

  27Ibid. Also Al-Muqaddasī, Land of Darkness, p. 170.

  28al-Jāiẓ, Kitāb al-ayawān, cited in C. Verlinden, L’Esclavage dans l’Europe mediévale, 2 vols (Bruges, 1955–77), 1, p. 213.

  29Ibid.

  30Verlinden, Esclavage, 2, pp. 218–30, 731–2; W. Phillips, Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade (Manchester, 1985), p. 62.

  31H. Loyn and R. Percival (eds), The Reign of Charlemagne: Documents on Carolingian Government and Administration (London, 1975), p. 129.

  32In Germany, it used to be common to do the same, with ‘Servus’ a regular greeting.

  33Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum, tr. T. Reuter, History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen (New York, 2002), I.39–41.

  34Pactum Hlotharii I, in McCormick, ‘Carolingian Economy’, 47.

  35G. Luzzato, An Economic History of Italy from the Fall of the Roman Empire to the Sixteenth Century, tr. P. Jones (London, 1961), pp. 35, 51–3; Phillips, Slavery, p. 63.

  36McCormick, ‘Carolingian Economy’, 48–9.

  37Hudūd al-Ālam, in The Regions of the World: A Persian Geography 372 AH–982 AD, tr. V. Minorsky, ed. C. Bosworth (London, 1970), pp. 161–2.

  38Ibn Falān, ‘Book of Ahmad ibn Falān’, p. 44; Ibn Khurradādhbih, ‘Book of Roads and Kingdoms’, p. 12; Martinez, ‘Gardīzī’s Two Chapters on the Turks’, pp. 153–4.

  39Russian Primary Chronicle, tr. S. Cross and O. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Cambridge, MA, 1953), p. 61.

  40Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz (Hanover, 1885), p. 35.

  41Masūdī, ‘Meadows of Gold’, pp. 145–6; Ibn awqal, ‘Book of the Configuration of the Earth’, p. 175.

  42Ibn awqal, ‘Book of the Configuration of the Earth’, p. 178.

  43R. Kovalev, ‘Mint Output in Tenth Century Bukhara: A Case Study of Dirham Production with Monetary Circulation in Northern Europe’, Russian History/Histoire Russe 28 (2001), 250–9.

  44Russian Primary Chronicle, p. 86.

  45Ibid., p. 90.

  46H. Halm, Das Reich des Mahdi. Der Aufstieg der Fatimiden (875–973) (Munich, 1991); F. Akbar, ‘The Secular Roots of Religious Dissidence in Early Islam: The Case of the Qaramita of Sawad Al-Kufa’, Journal of the Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs 12.2 (1991), 376–90. For the breakdown of the caliphate in this period, see M. van Berkel, N. El Cheikh, H. Kennedy and L. Osti, Crisis and Continuity at the Abbasid Court: Formal and Informal Politics in the Caliphate of al-Muqtadir (Leiden, 2013).

  47Bar Hebraeus, Ktābā d-maktbānūt zabnē, E. Budge (ed. and tr.), The Chronography of Gregory Abul Faraj, 2 vols (Oxford, 1932), 1, p. 164.

  48Matthew of Edessa, The Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa, tr. A. Dostourian (Lanham, 1993), I.1, p. 19; M. Canard, ‘Baghdad au IVe siècle de l’Hégire (Xe siècle de l’ère chrétienne)’, Arabica 9 (1962), 282–3. See here R. Bulliet, Cotton, Climate, and Camels in Early Islamic Iran: A Moment in World History (New York, 2009), pp. 79–81; R. Ellenblum, The Collapse of the Eastern Mediterranean: Climate Change and the Decline of the East, 950–1072 (Cambridge, 2012), pp. 32–6.

  49Ellenblum, Collapse of the Eastern Mediterranean, pp. 41–3.

  50C. Mango, The Homilies of Photius Patriarch of Constantinople (Cambridge, MA, 1958), pp. 88–9.

  51Russian Primary Chronicle, pp. 74–5.

  52Shepard, ‘The Viking Rus’ and Byzantium’, in S. Brink and N. Price (eds), The Viking World (Abingdon, 2008), pp. 498–501.

  53See for example A. Poppe, ‘The Building of the Church of St Sophia in Kiev’, Journal of Medieval History 7.1 (1981), 15–66.

  54Shepard, ‘Viking Rus’’, p. 510.

  55T. Noonan and R. Kovalev, ‘Prayer, Illumination and Good Times: The Export of Byzantine Wine and Oil to the North of Russia in Pre-Mongol Times’, Byzantium and the North. Acta Fennica 8 (1997), 73–96; M. Roslund, ‘Brosamen vom Tisch der Reichen. Byzantinische Funde aus Lund und Sigtuna (ca. 980–1250)’, in M. Müller-Wille (ed.), Rom und Byzanz im Nordern. Mission und Glaubensweschel im Ostseeraum während des 8–14 Jahrhunderts (Stuttgart, 1997), 2, pp. 325–85.

  56L. Golombek, ‘The Draped Universe of Islam’, in P. Parsons Soucek (ed.), Content and Context of Visual Arts in the Islamic World: Papers from a Colloquium in Memory of Richard Ettinghausen (University Park, PA, 1988), pp. 97–114. For Antioch’s textile production after 1098, see T. Vorderstrasse, ‘Trade and Textiles from Medieval Antioch’, Al-Masāq 22.2 (2010), 151–71.

  57D. Jacoby, ‘Byzantine Trade with Egypt from the Mid-Tenth Century to the Fourth Crusade’, Thesaurismata 30 (2000), 36.

  58V. Piacentini, ‘Merchant Families in the Gulf: A Mercantile and Cosmopolitan Dimension: The Written Evidence’, ARAM 11–12 (1999–2000), 145–8.

  59D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, 6 vols (Berkeley, 1967–93), 4, p. 168; Jacoby, ‘Byzantine Trade with Egypt’, 41–3.

  60Nāir-i Khusraw, Safarnāma, tr. W. Thackston, Nāer-e Khosraw’s Book of Travels (Albany, NY, 1986), pp. 39–40.

  61Jacoby, ‘Byzantine Trade with Egypt’, 42; S. Simonsohn, The Jews of Sicily 383–1300 (Leiden, 1997), pp. 314–16.

  62M. Vedeler, Silk for the Vikings (Oxford, 2014).

  63E. Brate and E. Wessén, Sveriges Runinskrifter: S
ödermanlands Runinskrifter (Stockholm, 1924–36), p. 154.

  64S. Jansson, Västmanlands runinskrifter (Stockholm, 1964), pp. 6–9.

  65G. Isitt, ‘Vikings in the Persian Gulf’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 17.4 (2007), 389–406.

  66P. Frankopan, ‘Levels of Contact between West and East: Pilgrims and Visitors to Constantinople and Jerusalem in the 9th–12th Centuries’, in S. Searight and M. Wagstaff (eds), Travellers in the Levant: Voyagers and Visionaries (Durham, 2001), pp. 87–108.

  67See J. Wortley, Studies on the Cult of Relics in Byzantium up to 1204 (Farnham, 2009).

  68S. Blöndal, The Varangians of Byzantium, tr. B. Benedikz (Cambridge, 1978); J. Shepard, ‘The Uses of the Franks in 11th-Century Byzantium’, Anglo-Norman Studies 15 (1992), 275–305.

  69P. Frankopan, The First Crusade: The Call from the East (London, 2012), pp. 87–8.

  70H. Hoffmann, ‘Die Anfänge der Normannen in Süditalien’, Quellen und Forschungen aus Italienischen Archiven und Bibiliotheken 47 (1967), 95–144; G. Loud, The Age of Robert Guiscard: Southern Italy and the Norman Conquest (Singapore, 2000).

  71al-Utbī, Kitāb-i Yamīnī, tr. J. Reynolds, Historical memoirs of the amír Sabaktagín, and the sultán Mahmúd of Ghazna (London, 1868), p. 140. See in general C. Bosworth, The Ghaznavids, 994–1040 (Cambridge, 1963).

  72A. Shapur Shahbāzī, Ferdowsī: A Critical Biography (Costa Mesa, CA, 1991), esp. pp. 91–3; also G. Dabiri, ‘The Shahnama: Between the Samanids and the Ghaznavids’, Iranian Studies 43.1 (2010), 13–28.

  73Y. Bregel, ‘Turko-Mongol Influences in Central Asia’, in R. Canfield (ed.), Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 53ff.

  74Herrman, ‘Die älteste türkische Weltkarte’, 21–8.

  75Yūsuf Khā ājib, Kutadgu Bilig, tr. R. Dankoff, Wisdom of Royal Glory (Kutadgu Bilig): A Turko-Islamic Mirror for Princes (Chicago, 1983), p. 192.

  76For the rise of the Seljuks, see C. Lange and S. Mecit (eds), The Seljuqs: Politics, Society and Culture (Edinburgh, 2011).

  77For a discussion on some contradictions in the sources here, see O. Safi, Politics of Knowledge in Pre-Modern Islam: Negotiating Ideology and Religious Inquiry (Chapel Hill, NC, 2006), pp. 35–6.

  78Dunlop, History of the Jewish Khazars, p. 260; A. Peacock, Early Seljuq History: A New Interpretation (Abingdon, 2010), pp. 33–4; Dickens, ‘Patriarch Timothy’, 117–39.

  79Aristakes of Lastivert, Patmutiwn Aristakeay Vardapeti Lastiverttswoy, tr. R. Bedrosian, Aristakēs Lastivertci’s History (New York, 1985), p. 64.

  80For a collection of the sources for the battle of Manzikert, see C. Hillenbrand, Turkish Myth and Muslim Symbol (Edinburgh, 2007), pp. 26ff.

  81Frankopan, First Crusade, pp. 57–86.

  82Ibid., pp. 13–25.

  83Bernold of Constance, Die Chroniken Bertholds von Reichenau und Bernolds von Konstanz, ed. I. Robinson (Hanover, 2003), p. 520.

  84Frankopan, First Crusade, pp. 1–3, 101–13.

  85Ibid., passim. For the fear of the Apocalypse, see J. Rubenstein, Armies of Heaven: The First Crusade and the Quest for Apocalypse (New York, 2011).

  Chapter 8 – The Road to Heaven

  1Albert of Aachen, Historia Iherosolimitana, ed. and tr. S. Edgington (Oxford, 2007), 5.45, p. 402; Frankopan, First Crusade, p. 173.

  2Raymond of Aguilers, Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Jerusalem, tr. J. Hill and L. Hill, Le ‘Liber’ de Raymond d’Aguilers (Paris, 1969), 14, p. 127. For the expedition and the Crusades in general, C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London, 2006).

  3Fulcher of Chartres, Gesta Francorum Iherusalem Peregrinantium, tr. F. Ryan, A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem 1095–1127 (Knoxville, 1969), I.27, p. 122. There is much to be learnt from current research on the relationship between mental health and extreme violence in combat. For example, R. Ursano et al., ‘Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Traumatic Stress: From Bench to Bedside, from War to Disaster’, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1208 (2010), 72–81.

  4Anna Komnene, Alexias, tr. P. Frankopan, Alexiad (London, 2009), 13.11, pp. 383–4; for Bohemond’s return to Europe, L. Russo, ‘Il viaggio di Boemundo d’Altavilla in Francia’, Archivio storico italiano 603 (2005), pp. 3–42; Frankopan, First Crusade, pp. 188–9.

  5R. Chazan, ‘“Let Not a Remnant or a Residue Escape”: Millenarian Enthusiasm in the First Crusade’, Speculum 84 (2009), 289–313.

  6al-Harawī, Kitāb al-ishārāt ilā marifat al-ziyārāt in A. Maalouf, The Crusade through Arab Eyes (London, 1984), p. xiii. Also note Ibn al-Jawzī’, al-Muntaẓam fī tārīkh al-mulūk wa-al-umam, in C. Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh, 1999), p. 78. In general here, see P. Cobb, The Race for Paradise: An Islamic History of the Crusades (Oxford, 2014).

  7For accounts of the suffering, S. Eidelberg (tr.), The Jews and the Crusaders (Madison, 1977). See M. Gabriele, ‘Against the Enemies of Christ: The Role of Count Emicho in the Anti-Jewish Violence of the First Crusade’, in M. Frassetto (ed.), Christian Attitudes towards the Jews in the Middle Ages: A Casebook (Abingdon, 2007), pp. 61–82.

  8Frankopan, First Crusade, pp. 133–5, 167–71; J. Pryor, ‘The Oath of the Leaders of the Crusade to the Emperor Alexius Comnenus: Fealty, Homage’, Parergon, New Series 2 (1984), 111–41.

  9Raymond of Aguilers, Le ‘Liber’, 10, pp. 74–5.

  10Frankopan, First Crusade, esp. pp. 186ff.

  11Ibn al-Athīr, al-Kāmil fī l-tarīkh, tr. D. Richards, The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir for the Crusading Period from al-Kāmil fīl-tarīkh (Aldershot, 2006), p. 13.

  12Jacoby, ‘Byzantine Trade with Egypt’, 44–5.

  13S. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society, 1, p. 45.

  14A. Greif, ‘Reputation and Coalitions in Medieval Trade: Evidence on the Maghribi Traders’, Journal of Economic History 49.4 (1989), 861.

  15Ibn Khaldūn, Dīwān al-mubtada, tr. V. Monteil, Discours sur l’histoire universelle (al-Muqaddima), (Paris, 1978), p. 522.

  16Frankopan, First Crusade, pp. 29–30.

  17E. Occhipinti, Italia dei communi. Secoli XI–XIII (2000), pp. 20–1.

  18J. Riley-Smith, The First Crusaders, 1095–1131 (Cambridge, 1997), p. 17.

  19The Monk of the Lido, Monachi Anonymi Littorensis Historia de Translatio Sanctorum Magni Nicolai, in Recueil des Historiens des Croisades: Historiens Occidentaux 5, pp. 272–5; J. Prawer, The Crusaders’ Kingdom: European Colonialism in the Middle Ages (London, 2001), p. 489.

  20Codice diplomatico della repubblica di Genova, 3 vols (Rome, 1859–1940), 1, p. 20.

  21B. Kedar, ‘Genoa’s Golden Inscription in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre: A Case for the Defence’, in G. Airaldi and B. Kedar (eds), I comuni italiani nel regno crociato di Gerusalemme (Genoa, 1986), pp. 317–35. Also see M.-L. Favreau-Lilie, who argues that this document may have been tampered with at a later date, Die Italiener im Heiligen Land vom ersten Kreuzzug bis zum Tode Heinrichs von Champagne (1098–1197) (Amsterdam, 1989), p. 328.

  22Dandolo, Chronica per extensum descripta, Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, 25 vols (Bologna, 1938–58), 12, p. 221. Also here see Monk of the Lido, Monachi Anonymi, pp. 258–9.

  23M. Pozza and G. Ravegnani, I Trattati con Bisanzio 992–1198 (Venice, 1993), pp. 38–45. For the date of the concessions, which have long been dated to the 1080s, see P. Frankopan, ‘Byzantine Trade Privileges to Venice in the Eleventh Century: The Chrysobull of 1092’, Journal of Medieval History 30 (2004), 135–60.

  24Monk of the Lido, Monachi Anonymi, pp. 258–9; Dandolo, Chronica, p. 221. Also see D. Queller and I. Katele, ‘Venice and the Conquest of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem’, Studi Veneziani 21 (1986), 21.

  25F. Miklosich and J. Müller, Acta et Diplomata graeca medii aevi sacra et profana, 6 vols (Venice, 1860–90), 3, pp. 9–13.

  26R.-J. Lilie, Byzantium and the Crusader States, 1096–1204, tr. J. Morris and J. Ridings (Oxford, 1993), pp. 87–94; ‘Noch einmal zu den Thema “Byzanz und die Kreuzfahrerstaaten”’,
Poikila Byzantina 4 (1984), 121–74. Treaty of Devol, Alexiad, XII.24, pp. 385–96.

  27S. Epstein, Genoa and the Genoese: 958–1528 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996), pp. 40–1; D. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia in the Medieval Mediterranean Economy’, in idem, Commerce and Conquest in the Mediterranean (Aldershot, 1993), 1, pp. 24–7.

  28T. Asbridge, ‘The Significance and Causes of the Battle of the Field of Blood’, Journal of Medieval History 23.4 (1997), 301–16.

  29Fulcher of Chartres, Gesta Francorum, p. 238.

  30G. Tafel and G. Thomas, Urkunden zur älteren handels und Staatsgeschichte der Republik Venedig, 3 vols (Vienna, 1857), 1, p. 78; Queller and Katele, ‘Venice and the Conquest’, 29–30.

  31Tafel and Thomas, Urkunden, 1, pp. 95–8; Lilie, Byzantium and the Crusader States, pp. 96–100; T. Devaney, ‘“Like an Ember Buried in Ashes”: The Byzantine–Venetian Conflict of 1119–1126’, in T. Madden, J. Naus and V. Ryan (eds), Crusades – Medieval Worlds in Conflict (Farnham, 2010), pp. 127–47.

  32Tafel and Thomas, Urkunden, 1, pp. 84–9. Also here J. Prawer, ‘The Italians in the Latin Kingdom’ in idem, Crusader Institutions (Oxford, 1980), p. 224; M. Barber, The Crusader States (London, 2012), pp. 139–42; J. Riley-Smith, ‘The Venetian Crusade of 1122–1124’, in Airaldi and Kedar, I Comuni Italiani, pp. 339–50.

  33G. Bresc-Bautier, Le Cartulaire du chapitre du Saint-Sépulcre de Jérusalem (Paris, 1984), pp. 51–2.

  34Bernard of Clairvaux, The Letters of St Bernard of Clairvaux, ed. and tr. B. James and B. Kienzle (Stroud, 1998), p. 391.

  35Annali Genovesi de Caffaro e dei suoi Continutatori, 1099–1240, 5 vols (Genoa, 1890–1929) 1, p. 48.