The Silk Roads: A New History of the World

by Frankopan, Peter

  36D. Abulafia, The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), p. 298. Also see idem, ‘Christian Merchants in the Almohad Cities’, Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies 2 (2010), 251–7; O. Constable, Housing the Stranger in the Mediterranean World: Lodging, Trade and Travel in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 2003), p. 278.

  37P. Jones, The Italian City State: From Commune to Signoria (Oxford, 1997). Also M. Ginatempo and L. Sandri, L’Italia delle città: il popolamento urbano tra Medioevo e Rinascimento (secoli XIII–XVI) (Florence, 1990).

  38Usāma b. Munqidh, Kitāb al-itibār, tr. P. Cobb, The Book of Contemplation: Islam and the Crusades (London, 2008), p. 153.

  39V. Lagardère, Histoire et société en Occident musulman: analyse du Mi’yar d’al-Wansharisi (Madrid, 1995), p. 128; D. Valérian, ‘Ifrīqiyan Muslim Merchants in the Mediterranean at the End of the Middle Ages’, Mediterranean Historical Review 14.2 (2008), 50.

  40Gesta Francorum et aliorum Hierosolimitanorum, ed. and tr. R. Hill (London, 1962), 3, p. 21.

  41See C. Burnett (ed.), Adelard of Bath: An English Scientist and Arabist of the Early Twelfth Century (London, 1987); L. Cochrane, Adelard of Bath: The First English Scientist (London, 1994).

  42Adelard of Bath, Adelard of Bath, Conversations with his Nephew: On the Same and the Different, Questions on Natural Science and on Birds, ed. and tr. C. Burnett (Cambridge, 1998), p. 83.

  43A. Pym, Negotiating the Frontier: Translators and Intercultures in Hispanic History (Manchester, 2000), p. 41.

  44T. Burman, Reading the Qurān in Latin Christendom, 1140–1560 (Philadelphia, 2007).

  45P. Frankopan, ‘The Literary, Cultural and Political Context for the Twelfth-Century Commentary on the Nicomachean Ethics’, in C. Barber (ed.), Medieval Greek Commentaries on the Nicomachean Ethics (Leiden, 2009), pp. 45–62.

  46Abulafia, Great Sea, p. 298.

  47A. Shalem, Islam Christianised: Islamic Portable Objects in the Medieval Church Treasuries of the Latin West (Frankfurt-am-Main, 1998).

  48Vorderstrasse, ‘Trade and Textiles from Medieval Antioch’, 168–71; M. Meuwese, ‘Antioch and the Crusaders in Western Art’, in East and West in the Medieval Mediterranean (Leuven, 2006), pp. 337–55.

  49R. Falkner, ‘Taxes of the Kingdom of Jerusalem’, in Statistical Documents of the Middle Ages: Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History 3:2 (Philadelphia, 1907), 19–23.

  50C. Cahen, Makhzumiyyat: études sur l’histoire économique et financière de l’Egypte médiévale (Leiden, 1977); Abulafia, ‘Africa, Asia and the Trade of Medieval Europe’, pp. 402–73.

  51S. Stern, ‘Ramisht of Siraf: A Merchant Millionaire of the Twelfth Century’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 1.2 (1967), 10–14.

  52T. Madden, ‘Venice and Constantinople in 1171 and 1172: Enrico Dandolo’s Attitudes towards Byzantium’, Mediterranean Historical Review 8.2 (1993), 166–85.

  53D. Nicol, Byzantium and Venice: A Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations (Cambridge, 1988), p. 107.

  54P. Magdalino, ‘Isaac II, Saladin and Venice’, in J. Shepard (ed.), The Expansion of Orthodox Europe: Byzantium, the Balkans and Russia (Aldershot, 2007), pp. 93–106.

  55Ibn Shaddād, Life of Saladin by Baha ad-Din (London, 1897), pp. 121–2; G. Anderson, ‘Islamic Spaces and Diplomacy in Constantinople (Tenth to Thirteenth Centuries c.e.)’, Medieval Encounters 15 (2009), 104–5.

  56Anna Komnene, Alexiad, X.5, p. 277.

  57Ibn Jubayr, Rilat Ibn Jubayr, tr. R. Broadhurst, The Travels of Ibn Jubayr (London, 1952), p. 315.

  58Ibid. Also C. Chism, ‘Memory, Wonder and Desire in the Travels of Ibn Jubayr and Ibn Battuta’, in N. Paul and S. Yeager (eds), Remembering the Crusades: Myth, Image and Identity (Cambridge, 2012), pp. 35–6.

  59Ibn al-Athīr, Chronicle, pp. 289–90; Barber, Crusader States, p. 284.

  60Barber, Crusader States, pp. 296–7; Imād al-Dīn, al-Fat al-qussī fī l-fat al-qudsī, tr. H. Massé, Conquête de la Syrie et de la Palestine par Saladin (Paris, 1972), pp. 27–8.

  61Barber, Crusader States, pp. 305–13; T. Asbridge, The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land (London, 2010), pp. 342–64.

  62J. Riley-Smith, The Crusades: A History (London, 1987), p. 137.

  63J. Phillips, The Crusades 1095–1197 (London, 2002), pp. 146–50; J. Phillips, Holy Warriors: A Modern History of the Crusades (London, 2009), pp. 136–65.

  64Geoffrey of Villehardouin, ‘The Conquest of Constantinople’, in Chronicles of the Crusades, tr. M. Shaw (London, 1963), p. 35.

  65William of Tyre, Chronicon, ed. R. Huygens, 2 vols (Turnhout, 1986), 2, p. 408; J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople (London, 2004), pp. 67–8.

  66D. Queller and T. Madden, ‘Some Further Arguments in Defence of the Venetians on the Fourth Crusade’, Byzantion 62 (1992), 438.

  67T. Madden, ‘Venice, the Papacy and the Crusades before 1204’, in S. Ridyard (ed.), The Medieval Crusade (Woodbridge, 2004), pp. 85–95.

  68D. Queller and T. Madden, The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople (Philadelphia, 1997), pp. 55ff.

  69Tafel and Thomas, Urkunden, 1, pp. 444–52.

  70Robert of Clari, La Conquête de Constantinople, ed. P. Lauer (Paris, 1924), 72–3, pp. 71–2.

  71Niketas Khoniates, Khronike diegesis, ed. J. van Dieten, Nicetae Choniatae Historia (New York, 1975), pp. 568–77.

  72P. Riant, Exuviae sacrae constantinopolitanae, 2 vols (Geneva, 1876), 1, pp. 104–5.

  73Khoniates, Khronike, p. 591. For an important reassessment of the damage to the city, T. Madden, ‘The Fires of the Fourth Crusade in Constantinople, 1203–1204: A Damage Assessment’, Byzantinische Zeitschrift 84/85 (1992), 72–93.

  74See M. Angold, The Fourth Crusade (2003), pp. 219–67; also D. Perry, ‘The Translatio Symonensis and the Seven Thieves: Venetian Fourth Crusade Furta Sacra Narrative and the Looting of Constantinople’, in T. Madden (ed.), The Fourth Crusade: Event, Aftermath and Perceptions (Aldershot, 2008), pp. 89–112.

  75R. Gallo, ‘La tomba di Enrico Dandolo in Santa Sofia a Constantinople’, Rivista Mensile della Città di Venezia 6 (1927), 270–83; T. Madden, Enrico Dandolo and the Rise of Venice (Baltimore, 2003), pp. 193–4.

  76Michael Khoniates, Michaelis Choniatae Epistulae, ed. F. Kolovou (Berlin, 2001), Letters 145, 165, 100; T. Shawcross, ‘The Lost Generation (c. 1204–c. 1222): Political Allegiance and Local Interests under the Impact of the Fourth Crusade’, in J. Herrin and G. Saint-Guillain (eds), Identities and Allegiances in the Eastern Mediterranean after 1204 (Farnham, 2011), pp. 9–45.

  77Tafel and Thomas, Urkunden, 1, pp. 464–88; N. Oikonomides, ‘La Decomposition de l’Empire byzantin à la veille de 1204 et les origines de l’Empire de Nicée: à propos de la “Partitio Romaniae”’, in XV Congrès international d’études byzantines (Athens, 1976), 1, pp. 3–22.

  78C. Otten-Froux, ‘Identities and Allegiances: The Perspective of Genoa and Pisa’, in Herrin and Saint-Guillan, Identities and Allegiances, pp. 265ff.; also G. Jehei, ‘The Struggle for Hegemony in the Eastern Mediterranean: An Episode in the Relations between Venice and Genoa According to the Chronicles of Ogerio Pane’, Mediterranean Historical Review 11.2 (1996), 196–207.

  79F. Van Tricht, The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium: The Empire of Constantinople (1204–1228) (Leiden, 2011), esp. pp. 157ff.

  80See S. McMichael, ‘Francis and the Encounter with the Sultan [1219]’, in The Cambridge Companion to Francis of Assisi, ed. M. Robson (Cambridge, 2012), pp. 127–42; J. Tolan, Saint Francis and the Sultan: The Curious History of a Christian–Muslim Encounter (Oxford, 2009).

  81Dulumeau, History of Paradise, pp. 71–96.

  82M. Gosman, ‘La Légende du Prêtre Jean et la propagande auprès des croisés devant Damiette (1228–1221)’, in D. Buschinger (ed.), La Croisade: réalités et fictions. Actes du colloque d’Amiens 18–22 mars 1987 (Göppinger, 1989), pp. 133–42; J. Valtrovà, ‘Beyond
the Horizons of Legends: Traditional Imagery and Direct Experience in Medieval Accounts of Asia’, Numen 57 (2010), 166–7.

  83C. Beckingham, ‘The Achievements of Prester John’, in C. Beckingham and B. Hamilton (eds), Prester John, the Mongols and the Ten Lost Tribes (Aldershot, 1996), pp. 1–22; P. Jackson, The Mongols and the West (London, 2005), pp. 20–1.

  84F. Zarncke, ‘Der Priester Johannes II’, Abhandlungen der Königlich Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Phil.-hist. Kl. 8 (1876), 9.

  85Jackson, Mongols and the West, pp. 48–9.

  Chapter 9 – The Road to Hell

  1Hetum, Patmich Tatarats, La flor des estoires de la terre d’Orient, in Recueil des Historiens des Croisades: Historiens Arméniens 1, p. x.

  2‘Ata-Malik Juvaynī, Tarīx-i Jahān-Gušā, tr. J. Boyle, Genghis Khan: The History of the World-Conqueror, 2 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1958), 1, 1, pp. 21–2.

  3For the meaning of Činggis as a title, see I. de Rachewiltz, ‘The Title Činggis Qan/Qayan Re-examined’, in W. Hessig and K. Sangster (eds), Gedanke und Wirkung (Wiesbaden, 1989), pp. 282–8; T. Allsen, ‘The Rise of the Mongolian Empire and Mongolian Rule in North China’, in The Cambridge History of China, 15 vols (Cambridge, 1978–), 6, pp. 321ff.

  4The Secret History of the Mongols, tr. I. de Rachewiltz, 2 vols (Leiden, 2004), 1, p. 13.

  5Allsen, ‘Rise of the Mongolian Empire’, pp. 321ff.; G. Németh, ‘Wanderungen des mongolischen Wortes Nökür “Genosse”’, Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 3 (1952), 1–23.

  6T. Allsen, ‘The Yüan Dynasty and the Uighurs of Turfan in the 13th Century’, in M. Rossabi (ed.), China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries (Berkeley, 1983), pp. 246–8.

  7P. Golden, ‘“I Will Give the People unto Thee”: The Činggisid Conquests and their Aftermath in the Turkic World’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 10.1 (2000), 27.

  8Z. Bunyatov, Gosudarstvo Khorezmshakhov-Anushteginidov (Moscow, 1986), pp. 128–32; Golden, ‘Činggisid Conquests’, 29.

  9Juvaynī, History of the World Conqueror, 16, 1, p. 107.

  10Ibn al-Athīr, in B. Spuler, History of the Mongols (London, 1972), p. 30.

  11D. Morgan, The Mongols (Oxford, 1986), p. 74.

  12Nasawī, Sīrat al-ultān Jalāl al-Dīn Mangubirtī, tr. O. Houdas, Histoire du sultan Djelāl ed-Dīn Mankobirti prince du Khārezm, (Paris, 1891), 16, p. 63.

  13K. Raphael, ‘Mongol Siege Warfare on the Banks of the Euphrates and the Question of Gunpowder (1260–1312)’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 19.3 (2009), 355–70.

  14A. Waley (tr.), The Travels of an Alchemist: The Journey of the Taoist, Chang-chun, from China to the Hindukush at the Summons of Chingiz Khan, Recorded by his Disciple, Li Chih-chang (London, 1931), pp. 92–3.

  15See the pioneering work by Allsen, Commodity and Exchange, and G. Lane, Early Mongol Rule in Thirteenth-Century Iran: A Persian Renaissance (London, 2003).

  16Juvaynī, History of the World Conqueror, 27, 1, pp. 161–4.

  17J. Smith, ‘Demographic Considerations in Mongol Siege Warfare’, Archivum Ottomanicum 13 (1994), 329–34; idem, ‘Mongol Manpower and Persian Population’, Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient 18.3 (1975), 271–99; D. Morgan, ‘The Mongol Armies in Persia’, Der Islam 56.1 (2009), 81–96.

  18Novgorodskaya Pervaya Letopis’ starshego i mladshego isvodov, ed. A. Nasonov (Leningrad, 1950), p. 61.

  19Ibid., pp. 74–7.

  20E. Petrukhov, Serapion Vladimirskii, russkii propovedenik XIII veka (St Petersburg, 1888), Appendix, p. 8.

  21Although medieval commentators made a link between Tatars and Tartarus, the former term was in use across the steppes as a reference to nomadic tribesmen, likely derived from the Tungusic word ‘ta-ta’, meaning to drag or pull. See S. Akiner, Religious Language of a Belarusian Tatar Kitab (Wiesbaden, 2009), pp. 13–14.

  22Jackson, Mongols and the West, pp. 59–60; D. Sinor, ‘The Mongols in the West’, Journal of Asian History 33.1 (1999), 1–44.

  23C. Rodenburg (ed.), MGH Epistulae saeculi XIII e regestis pontificum Romanorum selectae, 3 vols (Berlin, 1883–94), 1, p. 723; Jackson, Mongols and the West, pp. 65–9.

  24P. Jackson, ‘The Crusade against the Mongols (1241)’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History 42 (1991), 1–18

  25H. Dörrie, ‘Drei Texte zur Gesichte der Ungarn und Mongolen. Die Missionreisen des fr. Julianus O.P. ins Ural-Gebiet (1234/5) und nach Rußland (1237) und der Bericht des Erzbischofs Peter über die Tataren’, Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, phil-hist. Klasse (1956) 6, 179; also Jackson, Mongols and the West, p. 61.

  26Thomas the Archdeacon, Historia Salonitanorum atque Spalatinorum pontificum, ed. and trans. D. Krabić, M. Sokol and J. Sweeney (Budapest, 2006), p. 302; Jackson, Mongols and the West, p. 65.

  27Copies of two of these letters survive, C. Rodenberg (ed.), Epistolae saeculi XII e regestis pontificum romanorum, 3 vols (Berlin, 1883–94), 2, pp. 72; 3, p. 75.

  28Valtrovà, ‘Beyond the Horizons of Legends’, 154–85.

  29William of Rubruck, The Mission of Friar William of Rubruck, tr. P. Jackson, ed. D. Morgan (London, 1990), 28, p. 177.

  30Ibid., 2, pp. 72, 76; 13, p. 108; Jackson, Mongols and the West, p. 140.

  31John of Plano Carpini, Sinica Franciscana: Itinera et relationes fratrum minorum saeculi XVII et XIV, ed. A. van den Wyngaert, 5 vols (Florence, 1929), 1, pp. 60, 73–5.

  32John of Plano Carpini, Ystoria Mongolarum, ed. A. van den Wyngaert (Florence, 1929), pp. 89–90.

  33‘Letter of the Great Khan Güyüg to Pope Innocent IV (1246)’, in I. de Rachewiltz, Papal Envoys to the Great Khans (Stanford, 1971), p. 214 (with differences).

  34C. Dawson, Mongol Mission: Narratives and Letters of the Franciscan Missionaries in Mongolia and China in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries (London, 1955), pp. 44–5.

  35P. Jackson, ‘World-Conquest and Local Accommodation: Threat and Blandishment in Mongol Diplomacy’, in J. Woods, J. Pfeiffer, S. Quinn and E. Tucker (eds), History and Historiography of Post-Mongol Central Asia and the Middle East: Studies in Honor of John E. Woods (Wiesbaden, 2006), pp. 3–22.

  36R. Thomson, ‘The Eastern Mediterranean in the Thirteenth Century: Identities and Allegiances. The Peripheries; Armenia’, in Herrin and Saint-Gobain, Identities and Allegiances, pp. 202–4.

  37J.-L. van Dieten, ‘Das Lateinische Kaiserreich von Konstantinopel und die Verhandlungen über kirchliche Wiedervereinigung’, in V. van Aalst and K. Ciggaar (eds), The Latin Empire: Some Contributions (Hernen, 1990), pp. 93–125.

  38Wiliam of Rubruck, Mission of Friar William, 33, p. 227.

  39George Pachymeres, Chronicon, ed. and tr. A. Faillier, Relations historiques, 2 vols (Paris, 1984), 2, pp. 108–9; J. Langdon, ‘Byzantium’s Initial Encounter with the Chinggisids: An Introduction to the Byzantino-Mongolica’, Viator 29 (1998), 130–3.

  40Abdallāh b. Falallāh Waāf, Tarjiyat al-amār wa-tajziyat al-aār, in Spuler, History of the Mongols, pp. 120–1.

  41Allsen, Commodity and Exchange, pp. 28–9.

  42J. Richard, ‘Une Ambassade mongole à Paris en 1262’, Journal des Savants 4 (1979), 295–303; Jackson, Mongols and the West, p. 123.

  43N. Nobutaka, ‘The Rank and Status of Military Refugees in the Mamluk Army: A Reconsideration of the Wāfidīyah’, Mamluk Studies Review 10.1 (2006), 55–81; R. Amitai-Preiss, ‘The Remaking of the Military Elite of Mamluk Egypt by al-Nāir Muammad b. Qalāwūn’, Studia Islamica 72 (1990), 148–50.

  44P. Jackson, ‘The Crisis in the Holy Land in 1260’, English Historical Review 95 (1980), 481–513.

  45R. Amitai-Preiss, Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk–Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281 (Cambridge, 1995).

  46Jūzjānī, Tabaḳāt-i-Nāirī, tr. H. Raverty, A general history of the Muhammadan dynasties of Asia, including Hindūstān, from 810 A.D. to 1260 A.D., and the irruption of the infidel Mugals into Islam (Calcutta, 1881), 23.3–4, pp. 1104, 1144–5.


  47L. Lockhart, ‘The Relations between Edward I and Edward II of England and the Mongol Il-Khans of Persia’, Iran 6 (1968), 23. For the expedition, C. Tyerman, England and the Crusades, 1095–1588 (London, 1988), pp. 124–32.

  48W. Budge, The Monks of Kublai Khan, Emperor of China (London, 1928), pp. 186–7.

  49S. Schein, ‘Gesta Dei per Mongolos 1300: The Genesis of a Non-Event’, English Historical Review 94.272 (1979), 805–19.

  50R. Amitai, ‘Whither the Ilkhanid Army? Ghazan’s First Campaign into Syria (1299–1300)’, in di Cosmo, Warfare in Inner Asian History, pp. 221–64.

  51William Blake, ‘Jerusalem’. Legends about Joseph of Arimathea visiting the British Isles had circulated in England since the Middle Ages, W. Lyons, Joseph of Arimathea: A Study in Reception History (Oxford, 2014), pp. 72–104.

  Chapter 10 – The Road of Death and Destruction

  1S. Karpov, ‘The Grain Trade in the Southern Black Sea Region: The Thirteenth to the Fifteenth Century’, Mediterranean Historical Review 8.1 (1993), 55–73.

  2A. Ehrenkreutz, ‘Strategic Implications of the Slave Trade between Genoa and Mamluk Egypt in the Second Half of the Thirteenth Century’, in A. Udovitch (ed.), The Islamic Middle East, 700–1900 (Princeton, 1981), pp. 335–43.

  3G. Lorenzi, Monumenti per servire alla storia del Palazzo Ducale di Venezia. Parte I: dal 1253 al 1600 (Venice, 1868), p. 7.

  4‘Anonimo genovese’, in G. Contini (ed.), Poeti del Duecento, 2 vols (Milan, 1960), 1, pp. 751–9.

  5V. Cilocitan, The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries (Leiden, 2012), pp. 16, 21; S. Labib, ‘Egyptian Commercial Policy in the Middle Ages’, in M. Cook (ed.), Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East (London, 1970), p. 74.

  6See D. Morgan, ‘Mongol or Persian: The Government of Īl-khānid Iran’, Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic Review 3 (1996), 62–76, and above all Lane, Early Mongol Rule in Thirteenth-Century Iran.

  7G. Alef, ‘The Origin and Development of the Muscovite Postal System’, Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 15 (1967), 1–15.

  8Morgan, The Mongols, pp. 88–90; Golden, ‘Činggisid Conquests’, 38–40; T. Allsen, Mongol Imperialism: The Policies of the Grand Qan Möngke in China, Russia and the Islamic Lands, 1251–1259 (Berkeley, 1987), pp. 189–216.