The Silk Roads: A New History of the World

by Frankopan, Peter

  27Silva, Fundador do ‘Estado Português da Índia’, pp. 387–8. For Portuguese aims and policies in the Atlantic, Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean and beyond, see F. Bethencourt and D. Curto, Portuguese Oceanic Expansion, 1400–1800 (Cambridge, 2007).

  28G. Scammell, The First Imperial Age: European Overseas Expansion, c. 1400–1715 (London, 1989), p. 79.

  29A. Hamdani, ‘An Islamic Background to the Voyages of Discovery’, in S. Khadra Jayyusi (ed.), The Legacy of Muslim Spain (Leiden, 1992), p. 288. For Malacca’s importance before the Portuguese conquest, K. Hall, ‘Local and International Trade and Traders in the Straits of Melaka Region: 600–1500’, Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient 47.2 (2004), 213–60.

  30S. Subrahmanyam, ‘Commerce and Conflict: Two Views of Portuguese Melaka in the 1620s’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 19.1 (1988), 62–79.

  31Atwell, ‘Time, Money and the Weather’, 100.

  32P. de Vos, ‘The Science of Spices: Empiricism and Economic Botany in the Early Spanish Empire’, Journal of World History 17.4 (2006), 410.

  33Umar ibn Muammad, Raw al-āir fī nuzʹhat al-khāir, tr. R. Burton, The Perfumed Garden of the Shaykh Nefzawi (New York, 1964), p. 117.

  34F. Lane, ‘The Mediterranean Spice Trade: Further Evidence of its Revival in the Sixteenth Century’, American Historical Review 45.3 (1940), 584–5; M. Pearson, Spices in the Indian Ocean World (Aldershot, 1998), p. 117.

  35Lane, ‘Mediterranean Spice Trade’, 582–3.

  36S. Halikowski Smith, ‘“Profits Sprout Like Tropical Plants”: A Fresh Look at What Went Wrong with the Eurasian Spice Trade, c. 1550–1800’, Journal of Global History 3 (2008), 390–1.

  37Letter of Alberto da Carpi, in K. Setton, The Papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571, 4 vols (Philadelphia, 1976–84), 3, p. 172, n. 3.

  38P. Allen, Opus Epistolarum Desiderii Erasmi Roterodami, 12 vols (Oxford, 1906–58), 9, p. 254; J. Tracy, Emperor Charles V, Impresario of War (Cambridge, 2002), p. 27.

  39A. Clot, Suleiman the Magnificent: The Man, his Life, his Epoch, tr. M. Reisz (New York, 1992), p. 79. Also R. Finlay, ‘Prophecy and Politics in Istanbul: Charles V, Sultan Suleyman and the Habsburg Embassy of 1533–1534’, Journal of Modern History 3 (1998), 249–72.

  40G. Casale, ‘The Ottoman Administration of the Spice Trade in the Sixteenth Century Red Sea and Persian Gulf’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 49.2 (2006), 170–98.

  41L. Riberio, ‘O Primeiro Cerco de Diu’, Studia 1 (1958), 201–95; G. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration (Oxford, 2010), pp. 56–75.

  42G. Casale, ‘Ottoman Guerre de Course and the Indian Ocean Spice Trade: The Career of Sefer Reis’, Itinerario 32.1 (2008), 66–7.

  43Corpo diplomatico portuguez, ed. J. da Silva Mendes Leal and J. de Freitas Moniz, 14 vols (Lisbon, 1862–1910), 9, pp. 110–11.

  44Halikowski Smith, ‘Eurasian Spice Trade’, 411; J. Boyajian, Portuguese Trade in Asia under the Habsburgs, 1580–1640 (Baltimore, 1993), pp. 43–4, and Table 3.

  45Casale, ‘Ottoman Administration of the Spice Trade’, 170–98; also see here N. Stensgaard, The Asian Trade Revolution of the Seventeenth Century: The East India Companies and the Decline of Caravan Trade (Chicago, 1974).

  46S. Subrahmanyam, ‘The Trading World of the Western Indian Ocean, 1546–1565: A Political Interpretation’, in A. de Matos and L. Thomasz (eds), A Carreira da India e as Rotas dos Estreitos (Braga, 1998), pp. 207–29.

  47S. Pamuk, ‘In the Absence of Domestic Currency: Debased European Coinage in the Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Empire’, Journal of Economic History 57.2 (1997), 352–3.

  48H. Crane, E. Akin and G. Necipoğlu, Sinan’s Autobiographies: Five Sixteenth-Century Texts (Leiden, 2006), p. 130.

  49R. McChesney, ‘Four Sources on Shah Abbas’s Building of Isfahan’, Muqarnas 5 (1988), 103–34; Iskandar Munshī, ‘Tārīk-e ālamārā-ye Abbāsī, tr. R. Savory, History of Shah Abbas the Great, 3 vols (Boulder, CO, 1978), p. 1038; S. Blake, ‘Shah Abbās and the Transfer of the Safavid Capital from Qazvin to Isfahan’, in A. Newman (ed.), Society and Culture in the Early Modern Middle East: Studies on Iran in the Safavid Period (Leiden, 2003), pp. 145–64.

  50M. Dickson, ‘The Canons of Painting by Ṣādiqī Bek’, in M. Dickson and S. Cary Welch (eds), The Houghton Shahnameh, 2 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1989), 1, p. 262.

  51A. Taylor, Book Arts of Isfahan: Diversity and Identity in Seventeenth-Century Persia (Malibu, 1995).

  52H. Cross, ‘South American Bullion Production and Export, 1550–1750’, in Richards, Precious Metals, pp. 402–4.

  53A. Jara, ‘Economia minera e historia eonomica hispano-americana’, in Tres ensayos sobre economia minera hispano-americana (Santiago, 1966).

  54A. Attman, American Bullion in European World Trade, 1600–1800 (Gothenburg, 1986), pp. 6, 81; H-Sh. Chuan, ‘The Inflow of American Silver into China from the Late Ming to the Mid-Ch’ing Period’, Journal of the Institute of Chinese Studies of the Chinese University of Hong Kong 2 (1969), 61–75.

  55B. Karl, ‘“Galanterie di cose rare . . .’: Filippo Sassetti’s Indian Shopping List for the Medici Grand Duke Francesco and his Brother Cardinal Ferdinando’, Itinerario 32.3 (2008), 23–41. For a contemporary account of Aztec society, Diego Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and the Ancient Calendar, tr. F. Horcasitas and D. Heyden (1971), pp. 273–4.

  56J. Richards, The Mughal Empire (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 6–8.

  57Bābur-Nāma, pp. 173–4. Also D. F. Ruggles, Islamic Gardens and Landscapes (Philadelphia, PA, 2008), p. 70.

  58Bābur-Nāma, p. 359.

  59Ibn Baūa, Travels, 8, 2, p. 478.

  60J. Gommans, Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and High Roads to Empire, 1500–1700 (London, 2002), pp. 112–13. For the size of Indian horses, J. Tavernier, Travels in India, ed. V. Ball, 2 vols (London, 1889), 2, p. 263. For Central Asian horses, see J. Masson Smith, ‘Mongol Society and Military in the Middle East: Antecedents and Adaptations’, in Y. Lev (ed.), War and Society in the Eastern Mediterranean, 7th–15th Centuries (Leiden, 1997), pp. 247–64.

  61L. Jardine and J. Brotton, Global Interests: Renaissance Art between East and West (London, 2005), pp. 146–8.

  62J. Gommans, ‘Warhorse and Post-Nomadic Empire in Asia, c. 1000–1800’, Journal of Global History 2 (2007), 1–21.

  63See S. Dale, Indian Merchants and Eurasian Trade, 1600–1750 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 41–2.

  64Cited by M. Alam, ‘Trade, State Policy and Regional Change: Aspects of Mughal–Uzbek Commercial Relations, c. 1550–1750’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 37.3 (1994), 221; also see here C. Singh, Region and Empire: Punjab in the Seventeenth Century (New Delhi, 1991), pp. 173–203.

  65J. Gommans, Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire, 1500–1700 (London, 2002), p. 116.

  66D. Washbrook, ‘India in the Early Modern World Economy: Modes of Production, Reproduction and Exchange’, Journal of Global History 2 (2007), 92–3.

  67Letter of Duarte de Sande, in Documenta Indica, ed. J. Wicki and J. Gomes, 18 vols (Rome, 1948–88), 9, p. 676.

  68R. Foltz, ‘Cultural Contacts between Central Asia and Mughal India’, in S. Levi (ed.), India and Central Asia (New Delhi, 2007), pp. 155–75.

  69M. Subtelny, ‘Mirak-i Sayyid Ghiyas and the Timurid Tradition of Landscape Architecture’, Studia Iranica 24.1 (1995), 19–60.

  70J. Westcoat, ‘Gardens of Conquest and Transformation: Lessons from the Earliest Mughal Gardens in India’, Landscape Journal 10.2 (1991), 105–14; F. Ruggles, ‘Humayun’s Tomb and Garden: Typologies and Visual Order’, in A. Petruccioli (ed.), Gardens in the Time of the Great Muslim Empires (Leiden, 1997), pp. 173–86. For Central Asia’s influence, see above all M. Subtelny, ‘A Medieval Persian Agricultural Manual in Context: The Irshad al-Ziraa in Late Timurid and Early Safavid Khorasan’, Studia Iranica 22.2 (1993), 167–217.

  71J. Westcoat, M. Brand and N. Mir, ‘The Shedara Gardens of Lahore: Site Documentation an
d Spatial Analysis’, Pakistan Archaeology 25 (1993), 333–66.

  72M. Brand and G. Lowry (eds), Fatephur Sikri (Bombay, 1987).

  73The Shah Jahan Nama of Inayat Khan, ed. and tr. W. Begley and Z. Desai (Delhi, 1990), pp. 70–1.

  74J. Hoil, The Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel, tr. R. Roys (Washington, DC, 1967), pp. 19–20.

  75Letter of John Newbery, in J. Courtney Locke (ed.), The First Englishmen in India (London, 1930), p. 42.

  76Samuel Purchas, Hakluytus posthumus, or, Purchas His Pilgrimes, 20 vols (Glasgow, 1905–7), 3, p. 93; G. Scammell, ‘European Exiles, Renegades and Outlaws and the Maritime Economy of Asia, c.1500–1750’, Modern Asian Studies 26.4 (1992), 641–61.

  77L. Newsom, ‘Disease and Immunity in the Pre-Spanish Philippines’, Social Science & Medicine 48 (1999), 1833–50; idem, ‘Conquest, Pestilence and Demographic Collapse in the Early Spanish Philippines’, Journal of Historical Geography 32 (2006), 3–20.

  78Antonio de Morga, in W. Schurz, The Manila Galleon (New York, 1959), pp. 69–75; also see Brook, Confusions of Pleasure, pp. 205–6.

  79D. Irving, Colonial Counterpoint: Music from Early Modern Manila (Oxford, 2010), p. 19.

  80For the Ottoman crisis, Pamuk, ‘In the Absence of Domestic Currency’, 353–8.

  81W. Barrett, ‘World Bullion Flows, 1450–1800’, in J. Tracy (ed.), The Rise of Merchant Empires: Long-Distance Trade in the Early Modern Worlds, 1350–1750 (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 236–7; D. Flynn and A Giráldez, ‘Born with a “Silver Spoon”: The Origin of World Trade in 1571’, Journal of World History 6.2 (1995), 201–21; J. TePaske, ‘New World Silver, Castile, and the Philippines, 1590–1800’, in Richards, Precious Metals, p. 439.

  82P. D’Elia, Documenti originali concernenti Matteo Ricci e la storia delle prime relazioni tra l’Europa e la Cina (1579–1615), 4 vols (Rome, 1942), 1, p. 91.

  83Brook, Confusions of Pleasure, pp. 225–6. For Chinese attitudes to antiquities and to the past, C. Clunas, Superfluous Things: Material Culture and Social Status in Early Modern China (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 91–115.

  84W. Atwell, ‘International Bullion Flows and the Chinese Economy circa 1530–1650’, Past & Present 95 (1982), 86.

  85Richard Hakluyt, The Principal Navigation, Voyages, Traffiques, & Discoveries of the English Nations, 12 vols (Glasgow, 1903–5), 5, p. 498.

  86C. Boxer, The Christian Century in Japan, 1549–1650 (Berkeley, 1951), pp. 425–7. Above all, see here R. von Glahn, ‘Myth and Reality of China’s Seventeenth-Century Monetary Crisis’, Journal of Economic History 56.2 (1996), 429–54; D. Flynn and A Giráldez, ‘Arbitrage, China and World Trade in the Early Modern Period’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 6.2 (1995), 201–21.

  87C. Clunas, Empire of Great Brightness: Visual and Material Cultures of Ming China, 1368–1644 (London, 2007); Brook, Confusions of Pleasure.

  88The Plum in the Golden Vase, or, Chin P’ing Mei, tr. D. Roy, 5 vols (Princeton, 1993–2013). See here N. Ding, Obscene Things: Sexual Politics in Jin Ping Mei (Durham, NC, 2002).

  89C. Cullen, ‘The Science/Technology Interface in Seventeenth-Century China: Song Yingxing on Qi and the Wu Xing’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 53.2 (1990), 295–318.

  90W. de Bary, ‘Neo-Confucian Cultivation and the Seventeenth-Century Enlightenment’, in de Bary (ed.), The Unfolding of Neo-Confucianism (New York, 1975), pp. 141–216.

  91The Selden Map itself may have been captured in this way, R. Batchelor, ‘The Selden Map Rediscovered: A Chinese Map of East Asian Shipping Routes, c. 1619’, Imago Mundi: The International Journal for the History of Cartography 65.1 (2013), 37–63.

  92W. Atwell, ‘Ming Observations of Ming Decline: Some Chinese Views on the “Seventeenth Century Crisis” in Comparative Perspective’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 2 (1988), 316–48.

  93A. Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, 4.7, ed. R. Campbell and A. Skinner, 2 vols (Oxford, 1976), 2, p. 626.

  Chapter 13 – The Road to Northern Europe

  1José de Acosta, Historia natural y moral de las Indias, tr. E. Mangan, Natural and Moral History of the Indies (Durham, NC, 2002), p. 179.

  2Regnans in excelsis, in R. Miola (ed.), Early Modern Catholicism: An Anthology of Primary Sources (Oxford, 2007), pp. 486–8; see P. Holmes, Resistance and Compromise: The Political Thought of the Elizabethan Catholics (Cambridge, 2009).

  3D. Loades, The Making of the Elizabethan Navy 1540–1590: From the Solent to the Armada (London, 2009).

  4C. Knighton, ‘A Century on: Pepys and the Elizabethan Navy’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 14 (2004), pp. 143–4; R. Barker, ‘Fragments from the Pepysian Library’, Revista da Universidade de Coimbra 32 (1986), 161–78.

  5M. Oppenheim, A History of the Administration of the Royal Navy, 1509–1660 (London, 1896), pp. 172–4; N. Williams, The Maritime Trade of the East Anglian Ports, 1550–1590 (Oxford, 1988), pp. 220–1.

  6C. Martin and G. Parker, The Spanish Armada (Manchester, 1988); G. Mattingly, The Armada (New York, 2005).

  7E. Bovill, ‘The Madre de Dios’, Mariner’s Mirror 54 (1968), 129–52; G. Scammell, ‘England, Portugal and the Estado da India, c. 1500–1635’, Modern Asian Studies 16.2 (1982), 180.

  8The Portable Hakluyt’s Voyages, ed. R. Blacker (New York, 1967), p. 516; J. Parker, Books to Build an Empire (Amsterdam, 1965), p. 131; N. Matar, Turks, Moors, and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery (New York, 1999).

  9N. Matar, Britain and Barbary, 1589–1689 (Gainesville, FL, 2005), p. 21; Merchant of Venice, I.1.

  10C. Dionisotti, ‘Lepanto nella cultura italiana del tempo’, in G. Benzoni (ed.), Il Mediterraneo nella seconda metà del ’500 alla luce di Pepanto (Florence, 1974), pp. 127–51; I. Fenlon, ‘“In destructione Turcharum”: The Victory of Lepanto in Sixteenth-Century Music and Letters’, in E. Degreda (ed.), Andrea Gabrieli e il suo tempo: Atti del Convengo internazionale (Venezia 16–18 settembre 1985) (Florence, 1987), pp. 293–317; I. Fenlon, ‘Lepanto: The Arts of Celebration in Renaissance Venice’, Proceedings of the British Academy 73 (1988), 201–36.

  11S. Skilliter, ‘Three Letters from the Ottoman “Sultana” Safiye to Queen Elizabeth I’, in S. Stern (ed.), Documents from Islamic Chanceries (Cambridge, MA, 1965), pp. 119–57.

  12G. Maclean, The Rise of Oriental Travel: English Visitors to the Ottoman Empire, 1580–1720 (London, 2004), pp. 1–47; L. Jardine, ‘Gloriana Rules the Waves: Or, the Advantage of Being Excommunicated (and a Woman)’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 14 (2004), 209–22.

  13A. Artner (ed.), Hungary as ‘Propugnaculum’ of Western Christianity: Documents from the Vatican Secret Archives (ca.1214–1606) (Budapest, 2004), p. 112.

  14Jardine, ‘Gloriana Rules the Waves’, 210.

  15S. Skilliter, William Harborne and the Trade with Turkey 1578–1582: A Documentary Study of the First Anglo-Ottoman Relations (Oxford, 1977), p. 69.

  16Ibid., p. 37.

  17L. Jardine, Worldly Goods: A New History of the Renaissance (London, 1996), pp. 373–6.

  18Merchant of Venice, II.7; Othello, I.3.

  19J. Grogan, The Persian Empire in English Renaissance Writing, 1549–1622 (London, 2014).

  20A. Kapr, Johannes Gutenberg: Persönlichkeit und Leistung (Munich, 1987).

  21E. Shaksan Bumas, ‘The Cannibal Butcher Shop: Protestant Uses of Las Casas’s “Brevísima Relación” in Europe and the American Colonies’, Early American Literature 35.2 (2000), 107–36.

  22A. Hadfield, ‘Late Elizabethan Protestantism, Colonialism and the Fear of the Apocalypse’, Reformation 3 (1998), 311–20.

  23R. Hakluyt, ‘A Discourse on Western Planting, 1584’, in The Original Writings and Correspondence of the Two Richard Hakluyts, ed. E. Taylor, 2 vols (London, 1935), 2, pp. 211–326.

  24M. van Gelderen, The Political Thought of the Dutch Revolt, 1555–1590 (Cambridge, 2002).

  25‘The First Voyage of the right worshipfull and v
aliant knight, Sir John Hawkins’, in The Hawkins Voyages, ed. C. Markham (London, 1878), p. 5. Also here Kelsey, Sir John Hawkins, pp. 52–69.

  26Hakluyt, ‘A Discourse on Western Planting’, 20, p. 315.

  27See J. McDermott, Martin Frobisher: Elizabethan Privateer (New Haven, 2001).

  28Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts, Venice, 6.i, p. 240.

  29P. Bushev, Istoriya posol’tv i diplomaticheskikh otnoshenii russkogo i iranskogo gosudarstv v 1586–1612 gg (Moscow, 1976), pp. 37–62.

  30R. Hakluyt, The principal navigations, voyages, traffiques and discoveries of the English nations, 12 vols (Glasgow, 1903–5), 3, pp. 15–16; R. Ferrier, ‘The Terms and Conditions under which English Trade was Transacted with Safavid Persia’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 49.1 (1986), 50–1; K. Meshkat, ‘The Journey of Master Anthony Jenkinson to Persia, 1562–1563’, Journal of Early Modern History 13 (2009), 209–28.

  31S. Cabot, ‘Ordinances, instructions and aduertisements of and for the direction of the intended voyage for Cathaye’, 22, in Hakluyt, Principal navigations, 2, p. 202.

  32Vilches, New World Gold, p. 27.

  33A. Romero, S. Chilbert and M. Eisenhart, ‘Cubagua’s Pearl-Oyster Beds: The First Depletion of a Natural Resource Caused by Europeans in the American Continent’, Journal of Political Ecology 6 (1999), 57–78.

  34M. Drelichman and H.-J. Voth, ‘The Sustainable Debts of Philip II: A Reconstruction of Spain’s Fiscal Position, 1560–1598’, Centre for Economic Policy Research, Discussion Paper DP6611 (2007).

  35D. Fischer, The Great Wave: Price Revolutions and the Rhythm of History (Oxford, 1996). Also D. Flynn, ‘Sixteenth-Century Inflation from a Production Point of View’, in E. Marcus and N. Smukler (eds), Inflation through the Ages: Economic, Social, Psychological, and Historical Aspects (New York, 1983), pp. 157–69.

  36O. Gelderblom, Cities of Commerce: The Institutional Foundations of International Trade in the Low Countries, 1250–1650 (Princeton, 2013).