Christina Queen of Sweden: The Restless Life of a European Eccentric

by Buckley, Veronica

  Bourdon, Sébastien, 161, 405

  Bracciano, Paolo Giordano Orsini, Duca di, 246

  Brahe, Ebba, 13, 50, 94

  Brahe, Count Per, 55, 81, 110–11, 220

  Brandenburg, 52–3, 55–6

  Brégy, Comte de, 338

  Brégy, Comtesse Charlotte de, 141, 336

  Breitenfeld, Battle of (1631), 33–4

  Browne, Edward, 356

  Brussels, 237–8, 240–1

  Burman, Pieter, 131

  Camden, William, 73

  Capitone, Cesare, 317

  Carracci, Annibale, 256

  Casati, Father Paolo, SJ, 192, 198, 200–1

  Castellane, Marquise Elisabeth de (‘la Belle Provençale’), 284–5

  Castiglione, Chevalier, 402

  Catholicism: Christina’s interest in, 185–200, 232; banned in Sweden, 186; Christina receives instruction in, 200–1, 204; Christina converts to, 238–9, 242–3; and celibacy rules, 266; see also papacy

  Cecconi, Alessandro, 158–9, 260, 356–7

  Ceri, Duchessa di, 343, 394

  Cérisantes, Marc-Duncan de, 92–4, 96, 274

  Cesti, Antonio: L’Argia (musical drama), 242

  Chantilly, 303–4

  Chanut, Pierre-Hector: as French ambassador in Stockholm, 135, 139; friendship with Christina, 135–6; and Descartes’ visit to Sweden, 145–7, 149, 151–2, 154–6; reports on Christina’s intentions to Mazarin, 169–70, 180; at Christina’s coronation, 176; religious tolerance, 186; and Christina’s proposed exile in France, 199–200; supports Bourdelot, 206; in The Hague, 236; discusses Monaldeschi’s execution with Christina, 329–30, 390; and Christina’s conversion, 390

  Charles I, King of England: reign, 7; executed, 165–6, 214, 235

  Charles II, King of England: exile in Spa, 230

  Charles (Stewart), Prince of England (1620), 12

  Chigi, Cardinal Fabio see Alexander VII, Pope

  Chigi, Don Mario, 350

  Christina Augusta, Queen of Sweden: birth, 5, 23–5; baptism, 25; sexual ambiguity and supposed hermaphroditism, 26, 97–8, 268; prospective marriage and suitors, 35, 52–8, 98–102, 108, 187; sends portrait to father on campaign, 36; meets mother at funeral of Gustav Adolf, 41; mother takes into care, 43; succeeds to throne, 44–9; titles, 47; and regency, 51; appearance and slight deformity, 59, 85–6, 135, 248, 283–4, 289, 305–6, 339, 356, 427; childhood and upbringing, 59–65; temperament, 59, 85; illnesses, 61, 76, 91, 162–3, 169, 182, 383–4, 433; education and learning, 62–3, 65–7, 69–71, 77, 134–5, 142–3; early piety, 67–8; religious doubts, 68–9, 169–70, 281–2, 312–13; languages, 69–71, 132–5, 139, 153–4, 242–3, 284, 300–1, 394; interest in classics and ancient world, 70–2, 77; views on women, 74–5, 262; attitude to animals, 75–6; military interests, 75; outdoor interests and horseriding, 75–6, 248; attachment to Karl Gustav, 77–8; dissimulates over nomination of Karl Gustav to High Steward, 79–81; relations with Oxenstierna, 79, 87–8, 91–2; assumes throne, 85; masculine ways, 86, 97–8, 204, 227, 229; treaty with Denmark (1645), 90; relations with France, 91; intrigues and opportunism, 92–4; susceptibility to plausible men, 93; favours Magnus De la Gardie, 95–6; attachment to Ebba Sparre, 97–8, 141; financial difficulties and extravagance, 104–8, 234, 240–1, 259, 277–8, 310, 314, 342–3, 361, 401; expands nobility, 105–6; assassination attempt on, 108; conflict with old nobility, 109; favours Protestant unity in Sweden, 110; Pope attacks (1648), 114; and Peace of Westphalia, 115–18; receives plunder from Prague, 120–1, 125; meets Russian peace mission, 122–4; avoids Madame Oxenstierna’s funeral, 124; collection of art and books, 125–9, 131, 231, 340, 355–6; pansophism, 127; invites French and other foreign visitors to Sweden, 129–40, 142; occult and alchemical interests, 132–3, 153, 390–4; intellectual interests, 136; supposed love affairs, pregnancies and abortions, 141, 277; reform plans, 143–4; proposes Swedish Academy, 144, 155; self-delusion and vanity, 144; Descartes’ influence on, 147–9, 155–6; brings Descartes to Sweden, 153–4; twenty-third birthday celebrations, 154; and Descartes’ death, 157; develops music in Stockholm, 158–9, 161; dancing and ballet, 159–61, 216; portraits of, 161, 296, 405, 411; nominates Karl Gustav as successor, 163, 165–6; declares intention not to marry, 164, 169, 187; and execution of Charles I of England, 165; and differences between Estates, 166–7, 171; coronation, 168–9, 171–8; intention to renounce throne, 169, 179–82, 187, 189; emblems and heraldic devices, 172; authority and prestige after coronation, 179; and Messenius’ attempted revolt, 183–4; interest in Catholicism, 185–95, 197–200, 232; temperamental restlessness, 188; near-drowning in Stockholm, 196–7; proposes exile in France, 199–200; receives Catholic instruction, 200–1, 204; plans flight to Spain, 202–4; banishes Magnus De la Gardie, 205, 207–9; negotiates abdication settlement, 211–15; retains sovereign status in abdication agreement, 211–12; smuggles out treasures from Sweden, 214–15; announces formal abdication to Riksdag, 217–20; leaves Sweden and travels through Europe, 221–2, 225–45; dresses in men’s clothes, 226–7, 229, 283–4; Mazarin traduces, 236; schemes and international plotting, 237, 240; private conversion to Catholicism in Brussels, 238–9; and mother’s death, 239; public conversion to Catholicism in Innsbruck, 242–3; arrival in Rome, 247–9; adopts ‘confirmation names’ Alexandra Maria, 250; life and activities in Rome, 252–9, 344–5, 355–60, 416, 420–1, 423; forms ‘academy’ in Rome, 260; musical interests and activities, 260–1, 263, 356–7, 407–8, 430; entertains cardinals, 263–4; relations with Azzolino, 266–9, 313, 344, 363–4, 386–8, 413, 421, 425–6; attitude to sex, 267–8; involvement in Vatican politics, 270–1; aspires to throne of Naples, 275–7, 309, 311–12, 316, 324–5, 335; travels to France, 278–93; attracted to Elisabeth de Castellane, 284–5; meets Duchesse de Montpensier, 287–93; welcomed in Paris, 294–302; meets Louis XIV at Compiègne, 305–10; lacks servants, 306, 310; devizes code for court at Naples, 313; letters to Mazarin, 314, 334–5; and theatre, 314, 338; returns to Fontainebleau, 315–18, 334; post interfered with, 316; orders Monaldeschi’s execution, 318–21, 323–33, 339, 390, 403, 428; insistence on royal status, 333–4; revisits Paris (1658), 336–41; return to Rome (1658), 342–4; Sweden’s allowance to, 342, 345; revisits Sweden after death of Karl X Gustav (1660), 346; transfers affairs from Antwerp to Hamburg, 348; return to Rome (1662), 349; and Duc de Créquy in Rome, 350–1; intervenes in Créquy affair, 351–4; eating and drinking, 357; gardening, 357–8; revisits and leaves Sweden (1666–7), 363, 366–74; attacks papal nepotism, 365–6; refused presence of priest in Sweden, 370–1; provokes and escapes anti-Catholic riot in Hamburg, 374–81; life in Hamburg, 383–5, 387–8, 390, 401; writes life story, 394–6, 400, 422; ambitions for Polish throne, 396–400; return to Rome (1668), 401, 405; promotes new theatre in Rome, 406–7; receives regular allowance in Rome, 406; supports artists in Rome, 409–11; and election of new pope to succeed Clement IX, 413–15, 417; Innocent XI withdraws pension, 416; status of quarters and retinue in Rome, 417–20; attends daily mass, 420; driving accident, 421; maxims and reflections, 423–5; supports Molinos, 429–31; presentiments of death, 432–4; death and funeral, 436–9; will, 440–1; assessed, 444–5; The Life of Queen Christina, Written by Herself, 394–6, 398, 400, 422–3

  Christine, Queen Mother of Sweden, 18–19, 22

  Cicciolino (Antonio Rivani), 408, 431

  Clement IX, Pope (Giulio Rospigliosi): writes opera libretto, 258; friendship with Leonora Baroni, 261; elected in succession to Alexander VII, 374–6, 381; and succession to Polish throne, 396; friendship with Christina, 406; pays pension to Christina, 406; death, 412; and Azzolino, 415

  Clement X, Pope (Emilio Altieri), 414–15, 417

  Clerselier, Claude, 145

  Comenius, John Amos, 114; Janua linguarum reserata, 69

  Comminges, Comte de, 287

  Compiègne, 303–10

  Condé, Claire-Clémence, Princesse de, 287

  Condé, Louis de Bourbon, Prince de (‘le Grand Condé’): Chr
istina meets in Antwerp, 235–6; Mazarin imprisons, 235, 294; declines offer of throne of Naples, 274; rescues Guise, 274; Duchesse de Montpensier admires, 287, 291; supposedly mocks Christina, 292–3; Chantilly chateau, 303; suggested for Polish throne, 397–9; death, 428

  Contarini, Aloysius, 112

  Cordier, Nicolas, 173

  Corelli, Arcangelo, 408

  Corpus Evangelicorum, 35–6

  Cortona, Pietro da, 258

  Cranach, Lucas, 125

  Créquy, Charles III de Poix, Duc de, 349–54

  Créquy, Duchesse de, 351

  Crete, 112, 343, 412

  Cromwell, Elizabeth, 230

  Cromwell, Oliver, 7, 165, 214, 229–30, 232, 237

  Cueva y Silva, Don Antonio della, 244, 272

  Decius, Roman Emperor: palace, 411

  De la Gardie, Ebba (née Sparre; ‘Belle’): Christina’s fondness for, 97–8, 141; Makalös home (Stockholm), 107; portrait painted, 161; and Christina’s interest in Catholicism, 170; letter from Christina in Antwerp, 234; letter from Christina in Rome, 257; Christina fails to see on visit to Sweden, 347–8; death, 348

  De la Gardie, General Count Jakob, 50–1, 55, 94, 108, 167, 210

  De la Gardie, Jakob Casimir, 98, 107

  De la Gardie, Count Magnus Gabriel: background, 94; friendship with Christina, 94–5; marriage to Maria Euphrosyne, 95, 97; in Paris, 95–6; and Christina’s declining Karl Gustav’s suit, 100–1; Per Brahe criticizes, 111; given Benfeld cannon, 118; and capture of Prague, 119; and French visitors to Sweden, 130; supposedly fathers children on Christina, 141; musical interests, 159; portraits of, 161; on position of Swedish nobility, 166; and Christina’s religious uncertainties, 170; at Christina’s coronation, 176–7; Christina confides intention to abdicate, 180; makes Grand Tour, 188; loses Christina’s favour, 205, 207–9; ambitions for princedom, 207; heads regency council, 346; as Chancellor, 368; reads Christina’s letters to Karl XI, 370; and Christina’s demands for Catholic priest in Sweden, 372; death, 428

  De la Gardie, Maria Euphrosyne, 60, 65, 95–7, 161, 170, 428

  De la Gardie, Count Pontus, 367, 369–73

  De la Vallée, Jean, 173

  Del Monte, Marchese Orazio: Christina favours in Rome, 359–61; accompanies Christina to Sweden (1667), 373; in Hamburg with Christina, 375, 378, 387; informs Azzolino of Christina’s activities, 387; Borri saves life, 393–4; carries Christina’s letter of condemnation to Rome, 402–3; death, 428

  Denmark: enmity with Sweden, 7; war with Sweden, 15, 30, 221; proposed dynastic link with Sweden, 53–4, 56–7; Maria Eleonora flees to, 83, 89; Sweden attacks (1643), 89; treaty with Sweden (1645), 90; Christina proposes religious liberty for, 348; allies with Holland against England, 362; Christina reaches from Sweden (1667), 373

  Descartes, René: view of animals, 75; Chanut and, 135, 145; invited to Sweden, 145, 149–51; philosophical/religious ideas, 146–9, 187, 201, 389; correspondence with Christina, 147–9; visits Paris, 150–1; Christina brings to Sweden, 152–6; dismisses study of Greek, 153–4; writes libretto for Christina’s ballet, 154–5; drafts statutes for proposed Swedish Academy, 155; illness and death, 156–7, 188; admires Anna Maria van Schurman, 230; Christina’s encomium to, 389; reinterred in Paris, 389; Metaphysical Meditations, 146; Principles of Philosophy, 149

  Dohna, Count Christoph von, 226

  Dorpat: university, 133, 144

  Dou, Gerrit, 126

  Drottningholm palace, 368

  Düben, Andreas and family, 157–9

  Dürer, Albrecht, 127–8

  Duriez (physician), 141, 182

  Egmont, Justus van, 231

  Elbfas, Jakob, 161, 175

  Eleonora Katarina, Countess (Christina’s cousin), 60, 65, 229

  Elisabeth, Princess of Bohemia, 146, 151, 153, 188

  Elisabeth, wife of Elector Georg Wilhelm, 11

  Elizabeth I, Queen of England, 73–4, 116

  England: under Charles 1, 7; war with Dutch, 214, 362, 389; peace with Dutch, 235; Christina plans re-Catholicization of, 237

  Erasmus, Desiderius, 77

  Erik XIV, King of Sweden, 73

  Evelyn, John, 27, 282, 409

  Farnese, Palazzo (Rome), 255–7, 259, 315, 344–5, 350, 353–4

  Fedele, Luigi, 244

  Felipe IV, King of Spain: grants Swedish ships safe harbour, 195; Christina appeals to for help, 199, 212, 234, 348; sends Pimentel to Christina, 202–3; Christina claims readiness to marry, 233; and Christina’s hopes for regency of Spanish Netherlands, 237; welcomes election of Pope Alexander VII, 240; and Terranova’s audience with Christina, 271

  Feodor, Grand Duke of Russia, 396

  Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor: in Thirty Years War, 30, 32–4; and death of Gustav Adolf, 40; presses Christina to marry son, 187; sends greetings to Christina on journey from Sweden, 229; Montecuccoli carries message to Christina from, 233; and Christina’s conversion, 239; welcomes election of Pope Alexander VII, 240; Christina requests money from, 345; war with Sweden, 345; declines to support Christina’s proposed religious conversion of Denmark, 348

  Ferdinand, Archduke, 241–2

  Ferdinand of Styria, 28

  Ferrara, 244–5

  Fiorillo, Tiberio (‘Scaramouche’), 299, 409

  Fleming, Admiral Herman, 152

  Fleming, Admiral Klaes, 55, 196–7

  Fontainebleau, 286–7, 315–18, 321, 333–4

  France: rise to dominance, 6, 115; alliance with Sweden, 31, 89–90, 334, 354; war with Empire, 90–1; Christina favours, 96; gains in Peace of Westphalia, 113, 118; Catholicism confirmed in, 114; scholars visit Sweden, 129–39, 142; provides goods for Christina’s coronation, 171–2; Swedish disenchantment with, 206; war subsidies to Sweden, 213; war with Spain, 239–40, 342; and papacy, 269–71; plot to annexe Naples, 273–8, 324; Christina visits from Rome, 278–93, 311; as Christina’s nemesis, 310; peace with Spain (1659), 313, 345

  Francis of Assisi, St, 246

  Francken, Father Gottfried, SJ, 193–5, 197–200

  Frederik III, King of Denmark, 227

  Freinsheim, Johann, 70, 131, 134, 150, 154–5

  Friedrich V, King of Bohemia and Elector of the Rhine (‘the Winter King’), 12, 15, 28–9, 440

  Friedrich, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 228

  Friedrich Wilhelm, Prince of Brandenburg: prospective marriage to Christina, 35, 52–8, 83, 108, 187; marries, 162

  Fronde, 165, 205, 287

  Galdenblad, Anders, 424

  Galileo Galilei, 133, 190

  Gallicano, Pompeo Colonna, Prince of, 275

  Gassendi, Pierre, 138

  Georg Wilhelm, Elector of Brandenburg, 11–12, 52–3, 83

  Germany: Protestant forces in Thirty Years War, 30–1, 112; religious tolerance in, 114; effect of war in, 115; and Peace of Westphalia, 115; see also Hamburg

  Giandemaria, Marchese, 255–6, 259, 279

  Giulia (‘Sybil’), 432–3, 443

  Grimaldi, Francesco Maria, 259

  Gripsholm, 64, 81–2

  Gronovius, Johann, 230

  Grotius, Hugo, 92–3

  Grotius, Madame Hugo, 92–3

  Güemes, Brother, 204–5, 210, 238, 246

  Guise, Henri, Duc de, 274, 283–4, 287, 289–91, 307; and plot to annexe Naples, 324–5

  Güldenstern, Baron, 123

  Gustav I Eriksson, King of Sweden, 45

  Gustav Adolf, King of Sweden: travels as ‘Adolf Karlsson’, 11–12, 226; courtship and marriage, 12–17; character and qualities, 13–14; military prowess, 15, 33–4; marriage relations, 22; and birth of Christina, 23–5; Friedrich V appeals to for help, 29; and Catholic threat, 30; and truce with Poland, 31; campaign in Europe, 34, 36–7; plans reorganization of Empire, 35; killed at Lützen, 38–40, 49, 53; funeral, 42–3; confirms Christina’s right of succession, 43–4, 46; encourages betrothal of Christina and Friedrich Wilhelm, 52–3; buried in Stockholm, 61; prescribes Christina’s upbringing and education, 63–5, 67, 75; educational and
social reforms, 66, 104–5, 144; relations with Oxenstierna, 86–7; encourages mining industry, 107; favours nobility, 109; on fusion of European wars, 112; resists French claims on German territory, 113; wariness of war with Russia, 122; acquires plunder, 125; enters Frankfurt, 294; in Christina’s life-story, 395, 423; achievements, 444

  Gustav Eriksson, King of Sweden, 226

  Gustavsson, Gustav, Count of Vasaborg (Gustav Adolf’s illegitimate son): upbringing, 21–2; sees father’s body, 39; celebrates Peace of Westphalia in Nuremberg, 118

  Gyllenhjelm, Baron Karl Karlsson, 50–1, 94, 98–9, 108–9

  Habsburg dynasty: imperial dominance, 6–7; elects Emperors, 28; in Spain, 29; in Thirty Years War, 29; Oxenstierna’s view of, 90; decline, 113

  Hälsingborg, 367, 373

  Hamburg: Christina in, 228–9, 346, 348, 363–4, 374–5, 382, 383–8, 390, 401; riot against Christina in, 376–81; severe cold in, 384

  Hand, Johan, 11, 14, 16

  Hebrew language, 133

  Hedvig Eleonora, Queen of Karl X Gustav, 228–9, 368

  Heinsius, Nicolaas, 131, 137–8, 428

  Henri IV, King of France, 340

  Henrietta Maria, Queen of Charles I of England, 295

  Hesse-Darmstadt, Cardinal Landgraf of, 255

  Holbein, Hans, 125

  Holland: rise to power, 6; in Thirty Years War, 29, 31; wars with England, 214, 362, 389; Christina passes through, 230; peace with England, 235; see also United Provinces

  Holm, Johan (ennobled as Leijoncrona), 234

  Holstenius, Father Lucas, 241, 248, 314, 356

  Holy Roman Empire: extent, 28; Gustav Adolf plans reorganization of, 35

  Horn, Gustav, 63, 81