The Lost History of 1914

by Jack Beatty

  18 For kitsch, see Urbanitsch, “Pluralist Myth and National Realities,” 101–41. Mrs. Stukla is from a Polish novel quoted in Unowsky, “The Pomp and Circumstance of Patriotism,” 125–26.

  19 London Times, August 19, 1902.

  20 Source for the emperor’s reaction is Margutti, The Emperor Francis Joseph and His Times, 131. For suicide threat, see Rudolph Binion, “From Mayerling to Sarajevo,” Journal of Modern History 47, no. 2 (June 1975): 312, n. 209. For Francis Joseph’s statement on the renunciation, see the London Times, June 29, 1900. Baron Margutti was with the emperor in Bad Ischl on June 28, 1914. Remak says the “almost blasphemous allusion” to Franz Ferdinand that Margutti attributes to the emperor is a thirdhand account that is “dubious at best.” Remak, Sarajevo, 160.

  21 For handwritten note, see Margutti, The Emperor Francis Joseph and His Times, 303.

  22 For daughter, see Palmer, Twilight of the Habsburgs, 324.

  23 For medieval rite, see the London Times, January 31, 1889. Third-class funeral seen in Immanuel Geiss, ed., July 1914: The Outbreak of the First World War, Selected Documents (New York: Scribner, 1967), 56, n. 4. For indifference, see Palmer, Twilight of the Habsburgs, 326. For courage above survival, see Richard Ned Lebow, A Cultural Theory of International Relations (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 357. The death grip of the ancien régime follows the analysis of Arno J. Mayer, The Persistence of the Old Regime, Europe to the Great War (New York: Pantheon, 1981). “ ‘Premodern’ elements” is on 5–6. For Czernin, see Margaret Macmillan, Paris 1919 (New York: Random House, 2001), 244.

  24 Hugh Seton-Watson, German, Slav, and Magyar (London: Williams and Morgan, 1911), 32. Redlich, Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria, 503. Baernreither, Fragments of a Political Diary, 303.

  25 Robert Musil, The Man Without Qualities (New York: Vintage, 1996), 180.

  26 For hyphens, see Norman Stone, “Hungary and the Crisis of July 1914,” Journal of Contemporary History 1, no. 3 (July 1966): 157. For funeral, see Beller, Francis Joseph, 165.

  27 See Palmer, Twilight of the Habsburgs, 293–95. For deputies, see Luigi Albertini, The Origins of the War of 1914, vol. 2 (New York: Enigma Books, 2005), 13. For Tisza, see Stone, “Hungary and the Crisis of July 1914,” 157.

  28 Beller, Francis Joseph, 190–92. For three hundred Rumanians, see Peter F. Sugar, “The Nature of Non-Germanic Societies under Habsburg Rule,” Slavic Review 22, no. 1 (March 1963): 27.

  29 For Franz Ferdinand, see Robert A. Kann, “William II and the Archduke Francis Ferdinand in Their Correspondence,” American Historical Review 57, no. 2 (January 1952): 323–51. For German nationalism, see Janik and Toulmin, Wittgenstein’s Vienna, 39. Also see “Germans or Czechs: Which Shall Dominate the Rule of Austria and Hungary?” the New York Times, December 5, 1897. For the language issue as a whole, see R. J. W. Evans, “Language and State Building: The Case of the Habsburg Monarchy,” Austrian History Yearbook 35 (2004): 1–24. In complaining about the Magyars to the kaiser, the archduke employed the “all” of conversation: German linguistic nationalism, from which the Czechs and Slovenes suffered, ran the Magyar variety a close second as a source of ethnic tension in the monarchy.

  30 For mule, see Robert A. Kann, Dynasty, Politics and Culture: Selected Essays, ed. Stanley B. Winters (Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 1991), 167. For language restrictions on the Romanians, see Sugar, “The Nature of Non-Germanic Societies under Habsburg Rule,” 25. For Magyar conquest, see Solomon Wank, “Pessimism in the Austrian Establishment at the Turn of the Century,” in Solomon Wank et al., eds., The Mirror of History: Essays in Honor of Fritz Fellner (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 1988), 298. For letter to Berchtold, see Kann, Dynasty, Politics, and Culture, 129. For wreaths, see Arthur J. May, The Passing of the Habsburg Monarchy, vol. 1 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1966), 39.

  31 Stefan Zweig, The World of Yesterday (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1964), 216. For red tape, see Johnston, The Austrian Mind, 48. For temper, see Luigi Albertini, The Origins of the War of 1914, vol. 2 (New York: Enigma Books, 2005), 4.

  32 For slattern, see Morton, Thunder at Twilight: Vienna, 33. For the chamberlain, see Rebecca West, Black Lamb and Grey Falcon (New York: Penguin, 2007), 339, 346.

  33 For the game, see West, Black Lamb and Grey Falcon, 334.

  34 For the archduke’s assassination as a major cause of the war, see Joachim Remak, “1914—The Third Balkan War Reconsidered,” Journal of Modern History 43, no. 3 (September 1971): 353–66.

  35 Seton-Watson, German, Slav, and Magyar, 109–11. For United States of Greater Austria, see Bled, Franz Joseph, 300.

  36 May, The Passing of the Habsburg Monarchy, 192–96; for world war, see 190. Serbia was not alone in fanning Pan-Slav feeling in Bosnia. Here, speaking in December 1913, is the Russian ambassador to Belgrade, M. Hartwig: “After the question of Turkey, it is now the turn of Austria. Serbia will be our best instrument. The day draws near when … Serbia will take back her Bosnia and her Herzegovina.” Seen in Albertini, The Origins of the War of 1914, 190.

  37 Margutti, The Emperor Francis Joseph and His Times, 125.

  38 Seen in May, The Passing of the Habsburg Monarchy, 28.

  39 London Times, April 10, 1909.

  40 Kann, “Correspondence,” 347.

  41 For Austrian historian, see Solomon Wank, “The Archduke and Aehrenthal: The Origins of a Hatred,” Austrian History Yearbook 33 (January 2002): 77–104.

  42 Albertini, The Origins of the War of 1914, 49, 50, 87. For the Black Hand, see Jan G. Beaver, Collision Course: Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, Serbia, and the Politics of Preventive War (Jan Beaver, 2009), 141–42. For Egypt, see Morton, Thunder at Twilight, 190. For Yugoslav state, see David MacKenzie, “Serbian Nationalist and Military Organizations and the Piedmont Idea, 1844–1914,” East European Quarterly 16, no. 3 (September 1982): 335–40. For a fictional portrayal of “Apis,” Princip, and Franz Ferdinand as the latter two converge on Sarajevo, see Bruno Behm, They Call It Patriotism (Boston: Little, Brown, 1932).

  43 Wank, “The Archduke and Aehrenthal,” 19–20. For insane, see A. J. P. Taylor, The Habsburg Monarchy, 1809–1918 (Chicago: 1976), 225. Palmer, Twilight of the Habsburgs, 296.

  44 Hinsley seen in Richard Ned Lebow, “Franz Ferdinand Found Alive: World War I Unnecessary,” in Philip Tetlock et al., eds., Unmaking the West: Counterfactual Thought Experiments in History (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006).

  45 See Kann, “Correspondence,” 347. For Franz Ferdinand’s wavering, see Samuel R. Williamson Jr., Austria-Hungary and the Origins of the First World War (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991), 129–31.

  46 For Potiorek scenario, see Samuel R. Williamson Jr., “Influence, Power, and the Policy Process: The Case of Franz Ferdinand, 1906–1914,” Historical Journal 17, no. 2 (June 1974): 434.

  47 For twenty-five times, see Alan Kramer, Dynamic of Destruction: Culture and Mass Killing in the First World War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 84. For Conrad, see Samuel R. Williamson Jr., “Review: The Habsburg Monarchy after Ausgleich,” Historical Journal 21, no. 2 (January 1978): 434. For background on Conrad, see Gunther Rothenberg, The Army of Francis Joseph (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1998).

  48 For letter to Berchtold, see Kann, Dynasty, Politics and Culture, 122. The translation used is from Graydon A. Tunstall, Jr., “Austria-Hungary,” in Richard F. Hamilton and Holger H. Herwig, eds., The Origins of World War I (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 124. For sheep, see Bled, Franz Joseph, 302. Quotation about prewar plans from Stone, “Hungary and the Crisis of July 1914,” 170.

  49 For disparity in divisions, see Rothenberg, The Army of Francis Joseph, 173. For comparative spending, see Taylor, The Habsburg Monarchy, 229. For July 7 meeting, see Tunstall, “Austria-Hungary,” 146.

  50 For Conrad on “two principles,” see Richard Ned Lebow, Between Peace and War: The Nature of International Crisis (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University P
ress, 1981), 26.

  51 Conrad to von Moltke is from Tunstall, “Austria-Hungary,” 170; to mistress on 177.

  52 Richard Ned Lebow, “Franz Ferdinand Found Alive.” Also see Richard Ned Lebow, “Counterfactual Thought Experiments: A Necessary Teaching Tool,” History Teacher 40, no. 2 (2007): 1–17. For a robust theoretical defense of counterfactual history, see Niall Ferguson, “Virtual History: Towards a ‘Chaotic’ Theory of the Past,” in Niall Ferguson, ed., Virtual History: Alternatives and Counterfactuals (New York: Basic Books, 1999), 1–90. For Kann, see “Emperor Franz Joseph and the Outbreak of World War I: A Reflection on Dr. Heinrich Kanner’s Notes as a Source,” in Kann, Dynasty, Politics, and Culture, 306. For Berchtold and Franz Ferdinand, see Williamson, Austria-Hungary and the Origins of the First World War, 37. For Berchtold and the Great Power argument, see Lebow, A Cultural Theory of International Relations, 352.

  53 For Serbian flags above, see the London Times, June 29, 1914. For Conrad and Gina, see Williamson, Austria-Hungary and the Origins of the First World War, 49–50. Also see Frederic Morton, Thunder at Twilight, 43–45, 68, 121. Also Rothenberg, The Army of Francis Joseph, 164. For Conrad on Ulster, see Jerome de Wiel, “Austria-Hungary, France, Germany and the Irish Crisis from 1899 to the Outbreak of the First World War,” Intelligence & National Security 21, no. 2 (April 2006): 253. See also F. W. Bridge, “The British Declaration of War on Austria-Hungary in 1914,” Slavonic and East European Review 47, no. 109 (July 1969): 401–22.

  54 For Franz Ferdinand’s warning to Berchtold against Conrad, see Williamson, Austria-Hungary and the Origins of the First World War, 146.

  55 Holger Afflerbach and David Stevenson, introduction to a volume they edited, An Improbable War? The Outbreak of World War I and European Political Culture before 1914 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2007), 4.

  56 Follows Lebow, “Franz Ferdinand Found Alive.”

  57 Bethmann to Riezler, seen in David M. Rowe, “The Tragedy of Liberalism: How Globalization Caused the First World War,” Security Studies 14, no. 3 (July–September 2005), 445. For Great Program, see Allan K. Wildman, The End of the Russian Imperial Army: The Old Army and the Soldiers’ Revolt, March–April 1917 vol. 1 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), 72.

  58 For lung, see Redlich, Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria, 523. For Francis Joseph’s illness and Franz Ferdinand’s train, see Palmer, Twilight of the Habsburgs, 322. For what Francis Joseph said to his nephew at their last meeting, see Binion, “From Mayerling to Sarajevo,” 315.

  NOTES FOR CHAPTER 6

  1 For praise of Caillaux above, see Kölnische Zeitung, April 14, 1915. For quotation, the epigraph, see Roger Martin du Gard, Summer 1914 (New York: Viking, 1941), 480–81. For Gerard, see A. T. Q. Stewart, The Ulster Crisis: Resistance to Home Rule, 1912–1914 (London: Faber & Faber, 1967), 271, n. 13. For von Moltke, see Mark Hewitson, “Images of the Enemy: German Depictions of the French Military, 1890–1914,” War in History 11, no. 1 (January 2004): 24 and 8–9.

  2 For General Staff, see Hewitson, “Images of the Enemy”; for Kladderadatsch, 26. On France’s relative depopulation, see Karen Offen, “Depopulation, Nationalism, and Feminism in Fin-de-Siècle France,” American Historical Review 89, no. 3 ( June 1984): 648–76. For German views of France, see Mark Hewitson, “Germany and France before the First World War: A Reassessment of Wilhelmine Foreign Policy,” English Historical Review 115, no. 462 (June 2000): 570–606, esp. 577.

  3 For number of governments, see Robert Tombs, France 1814–1914 (New York: Longman, 1996), 472. For Bülow, see Hewitson, “Germany and France before the First World War,” 577.

  4 For German critic, see Koenraad W. Swart, The Sense of Decadence in Nineteenth-Century France (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1964), 237–38.

  5 For details of mobilization and illustrative anecdotes, see Tombs, France 1814–1914, 481. For statistics on conscripts, see John F. V. Keiger, Raymond Poincaré (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 189.

  6 Jean-Jacques Becker, The Great War and the French People (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1986), 5.

  7 André Maurois, A History of France (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1956), 495. “I went to put on my uniform which my father wanted to see,” Maurois writes. “My father looked me over with the severity of an old soldier. ‘You must polish up your buttons.’ He was sad at my leaving but full of hope for France and happy to see a son of his taking part in the war of revenge of which he had dreamed ever since 1871.” Seen in Peter Vansittart, Voices from the Great War (New York: Franklin Watts, 1984), 35.

  8 For the brutish boche, see Ruth Harris, “The ‘Child of the Barbarian’: Rape, Race and Nationalism in France during the First World War,” Past & Present, no. 141 (November 1993): 170–206; for illustration of ape-like Germans closing in on a terrified French girl, see after 188. For spirit of “they shall not pass,” see Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau, Men at War 1914–1918: National Sentiment and Trench Journalism in France During the First World War (Providence: Berg, 1992), 182. “More or less consciously the soldiers appear forced into national feeling; this feeling obtrudes on them at the death of their comrades, the acclaim of local people, at a front-line advance or retreat … It is in this sense that the concept of duty must be understood.”

  9 For ban on Caillaux’s name, see Becker, The Great War and the French People, 59.

  10 For the Caillaux affair, see Benjamin F. Martin, The Hypocrisy of Justice in the Belle Époque (Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 1984), 151–224; Peter Shankland, Death of an Editor: The Caillaux Drama (London: William Kimber, 1981); Edward Berenson, The Trial of Madame Caillaux (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). London Times, March 17, 1914. For Germans, see Berenson, 4.

  11 For number of articles, see Martin, The Hypocrisy of Justice, 180. For benefiting friends, see Berenson, The Trial of Madame Caillaux, 74, 79. For private conversations, see Gordon Wright, Raymond Poincaré and the French Presidency (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1943), 108, n. 10. For Caillaux and arms race, see Martin, The Hypocrisy of Justice, 151. For French defense spending, see Geoffrey Barraclough, From Agadir to Armageddon: Anatomy of a Crisis (New York: Holmes and Mier, 1982), 159.

  12 The quotation from the Belgian ambassador seen in E. D. Morel, Diplomacy Revealed (Manchester: National Labour Press, 1923), 281, 247.

  13 Details and quotation taken from Rudolph Binion, Defeated Leaders: The Political Fate of Caillaux, Jouvenal, and Tardieu (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960), 18.

  14 Berenson, The Trial of Madame Caillaux, 49–51.

  15 Ibid., 51.

  16 For confusion with Caillaux’s father, see Berenson, ibid., 20; also see 47–48.

  17 Ibid., 83. Also see Martin, The Hypocrisy of Justice, 170.

  18 Berenson, The Trial of Madame Caillaux, 49, 65.

  19 Gambetta quotation is from Peter Shankland, Death of an Editor, 16. For Caillaux on Clemenceau, see 209. For Clemenceau on Caillaux, see Gregor Dallas, The Heart of a Tiger: Clemenceau and His World (New York: Graf, 1993), 406, 506.

  20 Berenson, The Trial of Madame Caillaux, 142.

  21 Ibid., 142–43. The quotation from Berthe Gueydan taken from a front-page story in the New York Times, July 25, 1914. For three letters, see the New York Times, March 24, 1914.

  22 Berenson, The Trial of Madame Caillaux, 148–49, 189.

  23 The quotation from Charles de Gaulle seen in Louis Begley, Why the Dreyfus Affair Matters (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 48.

  24 The examples are all from Tombs, France 1814–1914, 46–60. For swag of mourning cloth, see Laird Boswell, “From Liberation to Purge Trials in the ‘Mythic Provinces’: Recasting French Identities in Alsace and Lorraine, 1918–1920,” French Historical Studies 23, no. 1 (2000): 2.

  25 The dimensions of the great imperialist carve-up of the globe are taken from Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire (New York: Pantheon, 1987), 59. For deaths, see J. Thomson, “The Results of European Intercourse with the Africans,” Con
temporary Review 57 ( January 1890): 339–52. Worse was to come. “There was only one man who could be accused of the outrages which reduced the native population [of the Congo] from between 20 to 40 million in 1890 to 8,500,000 in 1911—Leopold II.” Selwyn James, South of the Congo (New York: Random House, 1943), 305. Seen in Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Meridian, 1964), 185, n. 2.

  26 For the French, see Tombs, France 1814–1914, 200–211. For Ferry, see C. P. Gooch, Franco-German Relations, 1870–1914 (London: Longman’s, 1923), 21. The quotation from Ferry is from Tombs, 207. For French newspaper readers and General Lyautey, see Eugen Weber, The Nationalist Revival in France, 1905–1914 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968), 93–94.

  27 For battle, see Ross E. Dunn, Resistance in the Desert: Moroccan Resistance to French Imperialism 1881–1912 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977), 234–36. Douglas Porch, The Conquest of Morocco (New York: Knopf, 1983), 199.

  28 For the Mahdi and France’s problems, see Porch, The Conquest of Morocco, 231, 11.

  29 See Pierre Guillen, “The Entente of 1904 as a Colonial Settlement,” in Prosser Gifford and Wm. Roger Louis, eds., France and Britain in Africa: Imperial Rivalry and Colonial Rule (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971), 333–38. For British India and quotation, see Tombs, France, 1814–1914, 201. For red-brick plains, see Roger Martin du Gard, Lieutenant-Colonel de Maumort (New York: Knopf, 1999), 524–25. For “puppet state,” see A. J. P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 414. For English influence in Morocco, see Christopher Andrew, “German World Policy and the Reshaping of the Dual Alliance,” Journal of Contemporary History 1, no. 3 (July 1966): 140.

  30 For “arrive first,” see Christopher M. Andrew and A. S. Kanya-Forstner, The Climax of French Imperial Expansion 1914–1924 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981), 11. For French anger, see Tombs, France, 1814–1914, 206.