With Her Fist Raised
Page 18
Kennedy, Florynce. Color Me Flo: My Hard Life and Good Times. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1976.
Kessler-Harris, Alice. “Why Biography?” American Historical Review 114, no. 3 (2009): 625–30.
Killens, John O. Black Man’s Burden. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1965.
King, Mary E. Freedom Song: A Personal Story of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement. New York: William Morrow, 1988.
Kornbluh, Felicia. The Battle for Welfare Rights: Politics and Poverty in Modern America. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Lovett, Laura. Conceiving the Future: Pronatalism, Reproduction, and the Family in the United States, 1890–1930. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007.
MacLean, Nancy. Freedom Is Not Enough: The Opening of the American Workplace. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008.
Mamadou, Chinyelu. Harlem Ain’t Nothin’ but a Third World Country: The Global Economy, Empowerment Zones and the Status of Africans in America. New York: Mustard Seed Press, 1999.
Marable, Manning, and Elizabeth Kai Hinton, eds. The New Black History: Revisiting the Second Reconstruction. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
Maurrasse, David. Listening to Harlem: Gentrification, Community and Business. New York: Routledge, 2006.
McDuffie, Erik S. “Esther V. Cooper’s ‘The Negro Woman Domestic Worker in Relation to Trade Unionism’: Black Left Feminism and the Popular Front.” American Communist History 7, no. 2 (2008): 203–9.
McGuire, Danielle. At the Dark End of the Street: Black Women, Rape, and Resistance—A New History of the Civil Rights Movement from Rosa Parks to the Rise of Black Power. New York: Vintage, 2001.
Mchunu, K. H., and S. Mbatha. “The Significance of Place in Urban Governance: Mart 125 and the Politics of Community Development in Harlem, New York.” Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 9 (2018): 99–108.
Meier, August, and Elliott M. Rudwick. CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942–1968. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1975.
Michel, Sonya. Children’s Interests/Mothers’ Rights: The Shaping of America’s Child Care Policy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999.
Mitchell, Loften. Black Drama: The Story of the American Negro in Theater. New York: Hawthorn Books, 1967.
Morgan, Robin, ed. Sisterhood Is Powerful: An Anthology of Writings from the Women’s Liberation Movement. New York: Vintage, 1970.
———. “On the ‘Emerging’ Playwright.” In The Black American Writer, Volume II: Poetry and Drama. Edited by C. W. E. Bigsby. Baltimore: Penguin, 1971.
Morgan, Robin. The Word of a Woman: Feminist Dispatches, 1968–1992. New York: W. W. Norton, 1992.
Moynihan, Daniel. The Negro Family: The Case for National Action. Washington, DC: US Department of Labor, 1965.
Mulvey, Laura. “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema.” Screen 16, no. 3 (1975): 6–18.
Muzio, Rose. Radical Imagination, Radical Humanity: Puerto Rican Political Activism in New York. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2017.
Myrdal, Gunnar. An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. New York: Harper and Bros., 1944.
New York City Planning Commission. Plan for New York City: A Proposal. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1969.
Omolade, Barbara. The Rising Song of African American Women. New York: Routledge, 1994.
Perkins, Margo V. Autobiography as Activism: Three Black Women of the Sixties. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2000.
Plunz, Richard. A History of Housing in New York City. New York: Columbia University Press, 2016.
Purnell, Brian. Fighting Jim Crow in the County of Kings: The Congress of Racial Equality in Brooklyn. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2015.
Quinn, Patrice. “A Free Perspective.” In Rotskoff and Lovett, When We Were Free to Be.
Randolph, Sherie M. Florynce “Flo” Kennedy: The Life of a Black Feminist Radical. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015.
Redstockings. “No More Miss America.” In Morgan, ed. Sisterhood Is Powerful. 586–88.
Rickford, Russell. “Integration, Black Nationalism, and Radical Democratic Transformation in African American Philosophies of Education, 1965–74.” In Marable and Hinton, eds. The New Black History. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011, 287–317.
Riverol, A. R. Live from Atlantic City: The History of the Miss America Pageant before, after, and in Spite of Television. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1992.
Rose, Elizabeth. The Promise of Preschool: From Head Start to Universal Pre-Kindergarten. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
Rosen, Ruth. The World Split Open: How the Modern Women’s Movement Changed America. New York: Penguin, 2000.
Roth, Benita. “Second Wave Black Feminism in the African Diaspora: News from New Scholarship.” Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity 58 (2003): 46–58.
Rotskoff, Lori, and Laura L. Lovett, editors. When We Were Free to Be: Looking Back at a Children’s Classic and the Difference It Made. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012.
Rowe, Mary. “All Kinds of Love—in a Chinese Restaurant: West 80th Street Day Care Center, New York, New York.” A Study in Child Care. Case study from Volume II-A. Washington, DC: US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare; Office of Education, 1971.
Schuman, J. R. Ain’t I a Woman, Too? Jacksonville, FL: Deer Mountain Press, 2017.
Shaw, Nate, and Theodore Rosengarten. All God’s Dangers: The Life of Nate Shaw. New York: Knopf, 1974.
Smith, Cheryl A. Market Women: Black Women Entrepreneurs—Past, Present, and Future. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2005.
Springer, Kimberly. Living for the Revolution: Black Feminist Organizations, 1968–1980. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005.
Steinem, Gloria. “The City Politic: A Racial Walking Tour.” New York, February 24, 1969, 6–7.
———. “The City Politic: Room at the Bottom, Boredom at the Top.” New York, June 30, 1969, 10–11.
———. My Life on the Road. New York: Random House, 2015.
Stone, L. J. Head Start to Confidence: A Project Head Start Training Film. Department of Psychology, Vassar College, Office of Economic Opportunity (1969): 17:55.
Sutter, Paul S. Let Us Now Praise Famous Gullies: Providence Canyon and the Soils of the South. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2015.
Swinth, Kirsten. Feminism’s Forgotten Fight: The Unfinished Struggle for Work and Family. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018.
Thomas, Marlo. Free to Be . . . You and Me. New York: Free to Be Foundation, 1974.
Thompson, Becky. “Multiracial Feminism: Recasting the Chronology of Second Wave Feminism.” Feminist Studies 28, no. 2 (2002): 337–60.
Travelers’ Green Book: 1966–67 International Edition: For Vacation without Aggravation. Victor H. Green and Co., 1967, digitized copies, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/27516920–8308–0132–5063–58d385a.
21st-Century Barriers to Women’s Entrepreneurship. Majority Report of the US Senate Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship, July 23, 2014.
Van Matre, James. “The Congress of Racial Equality and the Re-Emergence of the Civil Rights Movement.” In The Civil Rights Movement in Florida and the United States: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. Edited by Charles U. Smith. Tallahassee, Florida: Father and Son Publishing, 1989.
Watson, Elwood, and Darcy Martin. There She Is, Miss America: The Politics of Sex, Beauty and Race in America’s Most Famous Pageant. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
Will, Jeffry A., Tracy A. Milligan, Charles E. Owens, John Talmage, and Timothy J. Cheney. Continuity Amongst Change: A Five-Year Assessment of Race Relations in Jacksonville, Florida, Phase 5, Final Report. Northeast Florida Center for Community Initiatives, University of North Florida. Prepared for the Jacksonville Human Rights Com
mission.
X, Malcolm, and Alex Haley. The Autobiography of Malcolm X. New York: Ballantine Books, 1973.
Zinsser, Judith P. “Feminist Biography: A Contradiction in Terms?” Eighteenth Century 50 (2009): 43–50.
IMAGE CREDITS
1. Photo by Dan Wynn. Copyright Dan Wynn.
2. Courtesy of Dorothy Pitman Hughes.
3. Courtesy of Dorothy Pitman Hughes.
4. Peace Fighters Poster, no author. February 1968. Dorothy Pitman Hughes Papers, Smith College, Northampton, MA.
5. Photo by Dan Wynn. Gloria Steinem Papers, Smith College, Northampton, MA. Copyright Dan Wynn.
6. Courtesy of Dorothy Pitman Hughes.
7. Courtesy of Dorothy Pitman Hughes.
8. Copyright Daniel J. Bagan.
INDEX
Please note that page numbers are not accurate for the e-book edition.
Abyssinian Development Corporation (ADC), 110–11, 138n96
activism. See civil rights movement; women’s liberation movement
Afros, as political statement, 1–2
“After Black Power, Women’s
Liberation” (Steinem), 64–65, 66–67
Alinsky, Saul, 4
allyship, 38. See also sisterhood, interracial
Amsterdam News, 70, 86, 98
anti-Semitism, 87
antiwar movement, 40, 62
Architects’ Renewal Committee in
Harlem (ARCH), 94
Atlanta Constitution, 10–11
Ballad of the Winter Soldiers (Killens), 31–35, 40
Bambara, Toni Cade, 73
beauty standards, 83, 85–86, 90. See also Miss America pageants
bed-and-breakfasts, 99–100, 108–10
biographies, 2–3
Black feminism: domestic labor, roots in, 126n12; of Dorothy, growth of, 40, 62; and women’s movement, 3, 64–66, 73–74, 124n19
Black Man’s Burden (Killens), 31, 35
Black Panther Party, 8, 51
Black Power movement: beginnings of, 39–40; and Black Nationalism, 36–38, 107, 127n41; Dorothy and imagery of, 1–2, 67, 118; and economic empowerment, 101, 103, 106, 113; and education, 92; and intersectionality, 62; and militant self-defense, 37–38, 39, 51; and women’s movement, 40, 64, 66; writing and activism in, 35
Blain, Keisha, 107
Boggs, Lindy, 96
bookstores, 95–96. See also civil rights movement
bra burning, 80, 133n1. See also women’s liberation movement
Bronx Slave Market, 23
Browne, Cheryl, 82
Brown v. Board of Education, 20
businesses, African American: and civil rights movement, 95–96; Dorothy’s support for, 91, 94, 97–99, 101, 102–4, 113; obstacles for, systematic, 96, 97–98, 99, 105–6; UME Z’s lack of support for, 91, 102–3, 111
Business Resource and Investment Service Center (BRISC), 104–5, 110
capitalism, 66, 97. See also gentrification
care, ethics of, 12, 14–15, 28
Carmichael, Stokely, 39, 66, 92
Chaney, James, 30, 31, 35
Charles Junction (Georgia): Dorothy’s continued connection to, 7, 27; employment in, 15–17; Historic Preservation Society of, 115–16, 118; race and class relations in, 9
childcare: community control of, 51–53, 56–58, 94; Dorothy’s activism in, 40, 41–43, 58–59; and housing, 55; needs-based approach to, 49–50, 53, 57–58; and wars, American, 42–43, 49, 50, 128n4; and women’s movement, 48–49, 50, 57, 67, 76–77
The Children Are Waiting (1970 report), 51
Chisholm, Shirley, 64, 89
Church Mother (title), 13–14
City University of New York, 97
Civil Rights Act (1964), 38, 43, 100
civil rights movement: and Afros, 1–2; and Black Power, 39–40; and bookstores, 95–96; and desegregation, 38, 41, 43, 70; and gentrification, 94; and women’s movement, 40, 64–65, 66, 71; writing and activism in, 30–31, 34–35. See also Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
class: and childcare, 43, 47, 49–50, 53, 56–58; and education, 92; and gentrification, 53, 93–94; and housing, 55; and race, intersection of, 9–10, 12, 19, 124n4; and women’s movement, 5, 61, 66, 70, 73–74
Clinton, Bill, 5, 101–2
Coleman, Val, 33
Collier-Thomas, Bettye, 14
colonialism, 29, 36–37
Columbus (Georgia), 21, 22
commercialization. See gentrification
community control: and childcare activism, 51–53, 56–58, 94; and education, 91–92; and urban development, 94, 105; of West 80th Street Day Care Center, 47–48, 50, 52, 54, 58–59
community gardens, 79, 117–18
community organizing: and community gardens, 79, 117–18; Dorothy’s gift for, 4; and Harlem Office Supply, xi, 91, 95, 98–99, 103; movement organizing compared to, 61–62; and WAA, 76; and West 80th Street Day Care Center, 43, 46–47, 52–53, 94–95; and West Side Community Alliance, 54–55, 56. See also Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
Comprehensive Child Care Act, 52–53
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE): Dorothy’s work and split with, 4, 5, 29–34, 40, 62; James Powell shooting, response to, 35–36; and protests, nonviolent vs. self-defensive, 39; World’s Fair protest, 41, 70
Copeland, Calvin, 111
copy shops. See Harlem Office Supply
cosmetics, 85–86. See also Miss America pageants
Cotton Club (Harlem), 25, 27, 97, 109
Davis, Sephus, 10–11
Deacons for Defense and Justice, 38, 39. See also Black Power movement
Department of Social Services (NYC), 47, 54, 56
desegregation, 20, 38, 39, 70, 92. See also racism and race relations
development, urban. See gentrification; Harlem Urban Development Corporation (HU DC)
Dillon, Dennis, 97, 136n31
direct action. See protests and direct action
diversity requirements, 97. See also businesses, African American
Dodge, Polly King, 54
domestic labor, 23–24. See also employment
domestic violence, 67. See also women’s liberation movement
Dorothy. See Hughes, Dorothy Pitman
DPH Marketing Network, 98–99
Early Childhood Development Task Force, 51–52, 56–57. See also childcare
economic empowerment: and community gardens, 117; corporate vs. community models of, 101, 102–3, 105–6; Dorothy’s work for, 5, 91, 95, 97–98, 103–4, 113; and women, 96, 103–4
education: community control of, 91–92; and racial inequality, 20, 51, 56, 92; segregation of, 38, 39, 41, 70; and welfare dependency, 67; at West 80th Street Day Care Center, 46–47, 48
Edward Waters College, 110, 116–17
employment: and racial inequality, 15–16, 23, 24, 43, 126n9; and urban development, 105–6, 111; and welfare, 57–58
Empowerment Zones (EZs), 101. See also Upper Manhattan Empowerment Zone (UME Z)
Endicott Hotel, 44–45, 46, 53
entrepreneurs. See businesses, African American
Epton, Bill, 36, 37–38
Equal Credit Opportunity Act, 96
Esquire, 2, 4, 75
Farmer, James, 30, 32, 33–34
farming communities, 3, 15–17
Faulkner, William, 16
Feigen, Brenda, 76
feminism. See Black feminism; women’s liberation movement
Flanagan, Thomas Jefferson, 20
Florida A&M University, 38
Florida Star, 118
food access, 45, 47, 67, 79, 117. See also community organizing
forced labor, 57–58. See also poverty
Fort Benning (Georgia), 21
Freedom Summers, 30, 31, 39
Free to Be . . . You and Me (Thomas), 77–78
Friedan, Betty, 61, 64
Gangi, Bob, 46, 58, 62–63
gardens, community, 79, 117–18
Garvey, Marcus, 106
Gateway Books, 117
gender socialization, 76–77. See also women’s liberation movement
gentrification: definition, 94; in Harlem, xi, 55, 91, 93–94, 113; and small businesses, impact on, 104, 105–6, 110–11, 113; in West Side NYC, 4, 44, 53, 55
Georgia, 10–12, 15–17, 18, 19–20, 36. See also Charles Junction
Gibson, Doris, 108
Gibson, Vernon, 108
Gittell, Marilyn, 92
Glass, Ruth, 94
GM, 83–84
Goldstein, Brian, 105–6
Goodman, Andrew, 35
grassroots organizing. See community organizing
Great Depression, 15, 99, 128n4
Green Book, 100. See also segregation
Guggenheimer, Elinor, 49–50, 53
Hand Brand Distribution, 112
Harlem: bookstores and activism in, 95–96; business practices in, 97–98; Dorothy’s move to, 69, 91, 94; education in, 91–92; as EZ, 102–3; female-owned businesses in, 103–4; gentrification in, xi, 55, 91, 93–94, 113; riots in, 32
Harlem Center, 111
Harlem Office Supply: business loans for, 104–5; closure of, in Harlem, 112–13; community shares in, xi, 108, 112; community support for, 100–101; displacement of, 110–11; and Edward Waters College, 110, 116; growth of, 98, 100; opening of, 3, 96; as site for activism, 5, 95–96, 97, 108; vision for, 91, 95
Harlem Unity Committee for Social Justice, 106
Harlem Urban Development Corporation (HU DC), 94, 98, 99, 102, 104, 109
Head Start programs, 50, 53, 117–18, 130n63. See also childcare
“HerStory in Black” (Hughes), 109
Hill, Lance, 39
Hill, Velma, 70
historic preservation, 20, 115–16, 118
history: control of, as key to power, 34–35; and Lovett’s biographical process, x, xi, 2, 3, 5; and media representation, 69–70, 72–73, 74–76
housing, 44, 55, 93–94
Hughes, Angela, 69, 72–73, 110
Hughes, Clarence, 68–69, 83–84, 99
Hughes, Dorothy Pitman: activism of, overview, 3–4, 5; bed-and-breakfast of, 99–100, 108–10; birth of, 3, 7; and Black Power, 8, 36–38, 39, 51; bookstore of, 116–17; Charles Junction, preservation of, 115–16; childcare, activism for, 51–52, 53, 54–59, 77–78, 94; community garden project, 79, 117–18; and CORE, 29–31, 33–34, 40, 62;early life and upbringing of, 7–10, 11–12, 19–21, 68; and economic empowerment, 91, 94, 96–99, 102–5, 106–8, 113, 116; education, activism for, 91–93; employment of, early, 21, 22–25, 27, 28; erasure of, historical, 2, 4–5, 69–70, 72–75; father of, 15–18; and Clarence Hughes, 68–69, 99; iconic photo of, ix, 1–2, 67, 79, 118; intersectionality of, 62, 64, 67, 69, 73–75, 77–78; and Malcolm X, 36, 37, 101; and Miss America pageants, 79–80, 82–90; mother of, 13–15, 22–23; personal papers of, x–xi, 69; and Bill Pitman, 29, 37, 38, 68–69; political identity, growth of, 19–20, 29, 40, 41–42; pregnancy of, 26–27; publications of, 113; singing career of, 3, 7, 8, 25, 27–28, 86; the South, desire to leave, 20–21, 22, 27, 29; and Gloria Steinem, 2, 4, 8, 47, 62–64, 65, 67–76, 79–80, 118; and women’s movement, 61–62, 64, 65–66, 68–76. See also Harlem Office Supply; West 80th Street Day Care Center