by Lori Peek
able at http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010912-8.
html (accessed may 7, 2010).
21. Gus martin, Understanding Terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives, and Issues
(Thousand Oaks, CA: sage publications, 2003).
22. national Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United states, The 9/11
Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon
the United States (Washington, DC: U.s. Government printing Office, 2004), 71.
23. martin, Understanding Terrorism, 13.
24. Deborah sontag, “The Twin Towers: Backlash; muslims in the United states Fear
an Upsurge in Hostility,” New York Times, march 7, 1993, A-1.
25. Andrea stone, “Anger, Fear of Backlash Follow Arrest,” USA Today, march 5,
1993, A-3.
26. ibid.
27. sontag, “The Twin Towers.”
28. martin, Understanding Terrorism, 2.
29. “A Different Order of magnitude,” Security Management, October 2001, available
at www.securitymanagement.com/library/001128.html (accessed February 6, 2010).
30. Kerem Ozan Kalkan, Geoffrey C. layman, and eric m. Uslaner, “‘Bands of
Notes to Chapter 7 / 203
Others?’ Attitudes toward muslims in Contemporary American society,” Journal of
Politics 71, no. 3 (2009): 847–862.
31. pew research Center, “muslim Americans: middle Class and mostly mainstream”
(report, pew research Center, Washington, DC, 2007).
32. mark Juergensmeyer, Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious
Violence (Berkeley: University of California press, 2000).
33. edward W. said, Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How
We See the Rest of the World, rev. ed. (new york: vintage Books, 1997), xvi.
34. Council on American-islamic relations, “American public Opinion about
islam and muslims” (report, Council on American-islamic relations, Washington, DC,
2006).
35. The White House, “president Bush’s Address to a Joint session of Congress and
the American people,” september 20, 2001, available at http://georgewbush-whitehouse.
archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html (accessed may 7, 2010).
36. Jeffrey Kaplan, “islamophobia in America? september 11 and islamophobic Hate
Crime,” Terrorism and Political Violence 18 (2006): 1–33.
37. Welch, Scapegoats of September 11th.
38. Kalkan, layman, and Uslaner, “‘Bands of Others?’”
39. penny edgell, Douglas Hartmann, and Joseph Gerteis, “Atheists as ‘Other’: moral
Boundaries and Cultural membership in American society,” American Sociological
Review 71 (2006): 211–234.
40. ibid., 218.
41. pew research Center, “muslim Americans.”
42. Adalberto Aguirre, Jr., and Jonathan H. Turner, American Ethnicity: The
Dynamics and Consequences of Discrimination, 6th ed. (Boston: mcGraw Hill, 2009).
43. richard Cimino, “‘no God in Common’: American evangelical Discourse on
islam after 9/11,” Review of Religious Research 47, no. 2 (2005): 162–174.
44. nadine naber, “introduction,” in Race and Arab Americans before and after
9/11: From Invisible Citizens to Visible Subjects, ed. Amaney Jamal and nadine naber
(syracuse, ny: syracuse University press, 2007), 1–45.
45. in its annual civil-rights reports, the Council on American-islamic relations
(CAir) tracks the specific religious practices and symbols most likely to trigger anti-
muslim discrimination. CAir has documented, year after year, that muslims are most
likely to be singled out for mistreatment when they are physically visible (due to their
skin complexion or attire), when they have a “muslim-sounding” name, or when they
actively associate with the muslim community as activists, community leaders, or
through membership in religious organizations.
46. new york City Commission on Civil rights, “Discrimination against muslims,
Arabs, and south Asians in new york City since 9/11” (report, new york City
Commission on Civil rights, new york, 2003).
47. Geneive Abdo, Mecca and Main Street: Muslim Life in America after 9/11 (new
york: Oxford University press, 2006).
48. pew Forum on religion and public life, “views of religious similarities and
Differences: muslims Widely seen as Facing Discrimination” (report, pew Forum on
religion and public life and pew research Center for people and the press, Washington,
DC, 2009).
204 / Notes to Chapter 7
49. Katherine pratt ewing, ed., “introduction,” in Being and Belonging: Muslims in
the United States Since 9/11 (new york: russell sage Foundation, 2008), 1–11.
50. Jack G. shaheen, Guilty: Hollywood’s Verdict on Arabs after 9/11 (northampton,
mA: Olive Branch press, 2008).
51. said, Covering Islam.
52. shaheen, Guilty.
53. ibid.
54. Alan Blank, “media to Blame for islamic misconceptions,” Daily Pilot, march
3, 2008, available at www.dailypilot.com/articles/2008/03/04/religion/dpt-bennett
03042008.txt (accessed may 7, 2010).
55. Bakalian and Bozorgmehr, Backlash 9/11.
56. “First muslim elected to Congress,” MSNBC News, november 7, 2006, available
at www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15613050/ (accessed may 7, 2010).
57. American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee, “2003–2007 report on Hate
Crimes and Discrimination against Arab Americans” (report, American-Arab Anti-
Discrimination Committee research institute, Washington, DC, 2008).
58. Bakalian and Bozorgmehr, Backlash 9/11.
59. ibid., 234.
60. ibid.
61. Gerald Turkel, “sudden solidarity and the rush to normalization: Toward an
Alternative Approach,” Sociological Focus 35, no. 1 (2002): 73–79.
62. monisha Das Gupta, “On Hardship and Hostility: The impact of 9/11 on new
york City Taxi Drivers,” in Wounded City: The Social Impact of 9/11, ed. nancy Foner
(new york: russell sage Foundation, 2005), 234.
63. rebecca solnit, A Paradise Built in Hell: The Extraordinary Communities that
Arise in Disaster (new york: viking, 2009).
64. Allen H. Barton, Communities in Disaster: A Sociological Analysis of Collective
Stress Situations (Garden City, ny: Doubleday, 1969); Charles e. Fritz, “Disaster,” in
Contemporary Social Problems, ed. r. K. merton and r. A. nisbet (new york: Harcourt,
Brace, and World, 1961), 651–694.
65. seana lowe and Alice Fothergill, “A need to Help: emergent volunteer Behavior
after september 11,” in Beyond September 11: An Account of Post-Disaster Research, ed.
J. l. monday (Boulder: natural Hazards Center, University of Colorado, 2003), 293–314;
seana lowe steffen and Alice Fothergill, “9/11 volunteerism: A pathway to personal
Healing and Community engagement,” Social Science Journal 46 (2009): 29–46.
66. steffen and Fothergill, “9/11 volunteerism.”
67. Kai T. erikson, Everything in Its Path: Destruction of Community in the Buffalo
Creek Flood (new york: simon and schuster, 1976).
68. erikson, A New Species of Trouble, 230–231.
69. ellen Zinner and mary Beth Williams use the concept of “group survivorship”
to describe the behavioral and emotional reactions of a community that has experi-
> enced the loss of one or more group members due to a traumatic event. i use the term
“collective grief” to refer to the specific emotional reaction that is commonly observed
in the aftermath of disaster. see ellen s. Zinner and mary Beth Williams, eds., When
a Community Weeps: Case Studies in Group Survivorship (philadelphia, pA: Brunner/
mazel, 1999).
Notes to Chapter 7 / 205
70. Therese A. rando, “Foreword,” in When a Community Weeps: Case Studies in
Group Survivorship, xix.
71. mary Beth Williams, ellen s. Zinner, and richard r. ellis, “The Connection
between Grief and Trauma,” in When a Community Weeps: Case Studies in Group
Survivorship, 3–17.
72. Judith Herman, Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence—from
Domestic Abuse to Political Terror (new york: Basic Books, 1997), 242.
73. Anne eyre, “remembering: Community Commemoration after Disaster,” in
Handbook of Disaster Research, ed. H. rodríguez, e. l. Quarantelli, and r. r. Dynes
(new york: springer, 2006), 441–455.
Index
Page numbers followed by the letter t refer to the table. Page numbers followed by the letter f refer to figures.
ABC News poll, 13, 14
Arab American institute Foundation, 93
Abdo, Geneive, 155
Arab Americans: attempts by, to educate pub-
Ackerman, mark G., 103
lic about islam, 26; government classifica-
ADC, 23, 32, 86, 95, 114–115, 138
tion of, as racially white, 28; and the 9/11
Afghanistan, 2–3, 4, 64–65, 192n85; U.s. war
backlash, 6, 23, 24, 28–30, 32, 33, 67, 113,
with, 32, 70, 138, 173
170, 172, 190n51; population of, 11; pre-9/11
Afghan muslims, 70
treatment of, 15, 23, 24; as suspects, 167;
Africa, 113; terrorism in, 109
voting for Bush/Cheney, 174. See also Arabs
African Americans, 170, 173; hate stares used
Arab Christians, 64
against, 72–73; home as haven for, 130; and
Arab-israeli war, 23
islam, 12, 37; and racial profiling, 31
Arab muslim American Federation of new
African muslims, 10
york, 149
airports and airlines: and racial profiling, 24,
Arabs, 11, 55, 169, 185n42
31, 32, 92–93; shut down after 9/11, 20
Arafat, yasser, 25
Alfred p. murrah Federal Building. See
Ashcroft, Attorney General John, 33, 75
Oklahoma City bombing
Asia, 108, 109
Algeria, 185n42, 192n85
Asian pacific Americans, 32, 170
Allah, 46–47
Australia, 190n51
al Qaeda, 4, 14, 111, 167, 197n17
Aviation and Transportation security Act, 93
altruism, 20–22, 105, 176, 179
altruistic community, 20–22, 176, 179. See also
backlash, 16, 22, 28, 34, 164; anticipation of,
therapeutic community
22, 23, 24, 59, 108–113; arrests, detentions,
American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Com-
and deportations, 8, 32–34, 136; and blame,
mittee (ADC), 23, 32, 86, 95, 114–115, 138
165–167; as continuation rather than anom-
American Jihad: The Terrorists among Us
aly, 59; defined, 165; enduring, 137–139; fac-
(emerson), 6
tors contributing to, 165–167, 175f;
208 / Index
backlash (continued)
Christianity, 38, 56, 168, 169, 173, 181n5
muslim American response to, 16, 118–119,
Christian missionaries, 46
140–141; nonverbal hostility, 6, 71–77; out-
CiA, 75
side the United states, 190n51; and police
Cimino, richard, 181n5
misconduct, 96–97; public and government
circumcision, female, 51–52
attempts to thwart, 26–27; swiftness and
civil rights, 27, 32–33, 36, 58, 76, 85, 92, 94, 114
severity of, 8, 58–59, 63, 105; verbal harass-
clothing, 39–40, 48, 54, 63, 158, 171; after 9/11,
ment and intimidation, 64–71, 128, 194n4;
130–135, 152, 160–161
violent confrontations, 95–99. See also dis-
collective grief, 105, 123, 127, 128, 129, 175,
crimination; hate crimes; profiling
177–179, 204n69
Backlash 9/11 (Bakalian and Bozorgmehr), 122, community of sufferers, 21, 104–105; muslim
199–200n11
Americans excluded from, 105, 123–129,
Bahrain, 185n42, 192n85
140, 141, 176, 177, 178.
Bakalian, Anny, 122, 165, 199–200n11
compounded fear, 113–122, 123, 177; defined,
Bangladesh, 11, 192n85
113. See also fear
Barton, Allen, 21
Comprehensive Anti-Terrorism Act of 1995, 24
Baudrillard, Jean, 197n13
Computer Assisted passenger screening
bindi, 54
(CAps) system, 93
bin laden, Osama: mentioned, 26, 64, 137,
Cooksey, John, 5
194n4; and 9/11, 29, 111, 112–113, 126,
Couch, stephen, 166
197n17; refuge in Afghanistan sought by, 4
Coulter, Ann, 117
Black Like Me (Griffin), 73
Council on American-islamic relations
Bozorgmehr, mehdi, 122, 165, 199–200n11
(CAir): anti-muslim harassment and bias
Bremer, paul, 168
reported by, 24, 32, 33f, 36, 86, 95, 116,
Britain, 190n51
138; information campaign by, 13, 26; and
Bryan, Jennifer, 157
political activism, 174; religious practices
Buddhists, 168
and symbols likely to attract discrimination
Bush, George H. W., 15, 23
tracked by, 203n45; statement issued by, fol-
Bush, George W.: antiterrorism activities of,
lowing 9/11, 25, 189n40
76; backlash violence condemned by, 27,
Covering Islam (said), 51, 169
190–191n63; endorsement of, regretted by
Crash, 194n4
muslim Americans, 174; mentioned, 5, 31,
Crouch, stanley, 66
92; and 9/11, 18, 22, 25, 147, 186–187n1;
curfews, 135
statement by, that islam and muslims are
not the enemy, 169–170. See also Bush
Das Gupta, monisha, 176
administration
data collection, 7–9
Bush administration, 75–76, 77, 95, 112
Denny, Frederick, 88
deportation, 24, 32–34; endorsed by Ann
Cainkar, louise, 157
Coulter, 117–118
CAir. See Council on American-islamic
detention camps, 15, 33
relations
Detroit, 12, 23
Canada, 34
disaster research, 6, 8, 21, 105, 176, 183–
Carson, Andre, 174
184n25; methods used, 7–8, 183n21
Carter administration, 15
disasters: and backlash, 165; and blame, 164,
catastrophes. See disasters
165–166, 175f; communities of compassion
Catholics, 173
following, 176–177; community of suffer-
Center for Cultural Conservatism, 67
ers created by ( see community of sufferers);
Central intelligence Agency (CiA), 75
human r
esponse to, 20–21, 104; indi-
Chambliss, saxby, 5
vidual and collective trauma caused by, 177,
Chicago, 12, 29
204n69; marginalized members of society
Chick, Jack, 46–47
impacted by, 16, 179; natural versus human-
children, 37–38
originated, 22–23, 166–167, 202n16; psycho-
Christian identity movement, 24
logical impairment from, 166–167, 202n16;
Index / 209
as revealing inner workings and weaknesses
fear: by general public, 113, 114t; by muslim
of society, 6
Americans, 9, 113–122, 141–142t
discrimination, 33f; in education, 86–90; hous-
Federal Aviation Administration, 20, 93
ing, 83–86; on the job, 81–83; after 9/11,
Federal Bureau of investigation. See FBi
31–32, 63, 114, 144, 168; prior to 9/11, 16,
feminist theorists, 183n24
36; public’s view that muslim Americans
fieldwork: as an insider versus an outsider, 8,
face more, 172; in the search for employ-
183n24; in a post-disaster context, 8–9 . See
ment, 78–83, 121; and visibility, 63, 171–172;
also informants participating in study
witnessing, 99–102
First Amendment, 42
Discrimination research Center, 78
Fothergill, Alice, 176–177
Djibouti, 185n42
Free Congress Foundation, 67
DOT, 31
Fritz, Charles e., 6, 21, 104–105, 196n5
Drabek, Thomas, 165–166
fundamentalism, 32, 169
education, 50; discrimination in, 86–90;
gender, 7, 12–13, 37–38
muslim Americans’ level of, 7, 12; of non-
Germany, 14–15, 171
muslims, about islam, 13, 26, 148, 152,
Gestapo, 76
157–158, 159, 160, 172, 190–191n63
Goode, virgil, 171
eeOC, 27
Graham, Franklin, 5
egan, Cardinal edward m., 103
Griffin, John Howard, 72–73
egypt, 25, 167, 185n42, 192n85
Ground Zero, 124, 125, 145
ellison, Keith, 174
Guyana, 29
emerson, steven, 6
employment, 7; discrimination in, 78–83, 121
Haddad, yvonne, 145
end racial profiling Act of 2001, 91
Hagee, John, 5
equal employment Opportunity Commission
Halifax ship explosion, 21
(eeOC), 27
Hannity, sean, 6
erikson, Kai, 22, 23, 177
harassment, defined, 53. See also backlash;
eritrea, 192n85
Council on American-islamic relations