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——. Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the First Session of the Sixty-Eighth Congress of the United States of America. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1924.
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Urofsky, Melvin I., and David W. Levy, eds. Letters of Louis D. Brandeis, vol. 5, 1921–1941: Elder Statesman. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1978.
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Vancouver Daily World. “How Orientals Are Smuggled.” January 26, 1909.
Wallace, James A. “I Remember Normal.” In West Tennessee Historical Society Papers 1947–2010, vol. 30, edited by West Tennessee Historical Society, 129–37. Memphis: West Tennessee Historical Society, 1976.
Weeks, Linton. Clarksdale and Coahoma County: A History. Clarksdale, MS: Carnegie Public Library, 1982.
Whitaker, Robert. On the Laps of Gods: The Red Summer of 1919 and the Struggle for Justice That Remade a Nation. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2009.
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INDEX
Please note that page numbers are not accurate for the e-book edition.
Aderholdt, Thomas, 72
African Americans: Black Codes, 73–74; the Cane trial, 124; demands for equality, 60; and the Gong Lum v. Rice ruling, 139; the Great Migration, 31, 43–44, 108–9, 111–12, 114; relationships with Chinese, 27, 33–34; returning servicemen, 45; school attendance, 2–3; tenant farmers, 40. See also convict leasing; lynching; segregation; sharecroppers; white supremacy
agrarian lifestyle. See levee system; plantation society/planters; sharecroppers; yeoman farmers
Alcorn, George, 94–95, 97–99
Alcorn, Henry and Milton, 96
Alcorn, James, 94
Alcorn, James Lusk, 95–98
Alcorn, Mary Catherine, 94–95
Alcorn, Mollie, 95
Alcorn, William Aristides, Jr.: childhood and education, 94, 96, 99; and the Coleman case, 119, 121–22; and the Lum case, 93–94, 99–100; political ambitions, 87
Alcorn, William Aristides, Sr., 94–96
Alcorn State University/Alcorn system of education, 98
Anderson, William Dozier, 101
Anglo-Saxon homogeneity. See racial purity; white supremacy anti-miscegenation laws, 27. See also segregation
Arkansas: convict leasing, 32; Lum family move to, 140, 143; 1927 floods, 142–43
Armstrong, Louis, 111–12
Arthur, Chester A., 19
Asian immigrants. See Chinese immigrants
Baldwin, James, 28
Baltz, Edward, 15
Batson, Loamie A., 82
Beadel, Berta, 30–31
Bennett, J. G., 77
Benoit, Mississippi: Benoit Union Church, 30; the Dabney family in, 46–47; history, 35–36; the Lum family in, 28–29; position of the Chinese, 41; rich vs. poor residents, 40–41; schoolhouse, 38, 40; tenant farmers, 40
Bies, William, 16
Bilbo, Theodore, 82–83, 102
Bingham, John, 84–85
Black Codes, 73–74. See also white supremacy
Blockley, H. S., 122
Bolivar County Calvary Episcopal Church, 90
Bolivar County Courthouse, Rosedale, Mississippi, 89
Bolivar County Democrat, 92
Bond, Willard Faroe, 55, 82–84, 88
Bonds, Martha, 38
bootlegging, 3
Brandeis, Louis Dembitz, 132–34
Brewer, Claude, 71
Brewer, Claudia, 75
Brewer, Earl: birth and childhood, 70, 126; Brewer and Wilson law firm, 72; Cane murder trial, 125–27, 173n154, 173–74n159; crusade against coerced confessions, 121–22, 127–28; crusade against convict leasing/labor, 75–78, 164n93; death, 147; early work experiences, 72–73; education, 71; faith and beliefs, 75–76, 78; financial difficulties, 67–68, 79; home in Clarksdale, 80; James Graham story, 90–91; Jones defense, 127; law degree and practice, 72, 81; as Mississippi governor, 73; physical appearance, 64, 67; plantation owned by, 70; political ambitions, 69, 73; strategies/arguments in Lum case, 81–83, 87–88, 90, 104–5, 134, 147; work against lynching, 123. See also Flowers, James Nathaniel; Gong Lum v. Rice; Rice v. Gong Lum
Brewer, Lizzie, 70, 71
Brewer, Mary Elizabeth, 87
Brewer, Minnie Marion Block, 73, 120–21, 125
Brewer, Rodney Ratliff, 70–71
Brocato, I. J., 93
Brown, L. C., 90
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 135, 143–46
Brown v. Mississippi, 127–28
Bunns, Smith, 118–19
Bureau of Immigration statistics, 14
Callas, Roger, 32
Campbell, Sam, 116–17
Canada, illegal immigration to United States from, 14, 17–19
Canadian Agreement, 1894, 16
Cane, Gold, murder trial, 122, 124–25, 127, 173n154, 173–74n159
Carnegie, Andrew, 21
Cash, W. J., 36–37
Cass, Lewis, 82
Chicago: exodus of sharecroppers to, 43–45, 108–9; illegal immigration into, 9–12, 15–16, 51; Lum children’s trip to, 110–11; white suburbs, 5. See also Great Migration
Chicago Defender: on Gong Lum v. Rice ruling, 139; role in enticing blacks to migrate north, 43–44
child labor, 37–38
China, life and upheaval in, 11–13, 27
Chinese Exclusion Act, 1882, 19
Chinese immigrants: classification as “colored,” 5, 103, 105, 162n77; community formed by, 26; “coolie” laborers, 24–26; denial of benefits of segregation, 131; exclusion from citizenship, 19–20, 57–58; exodus from the Mississippi Delta region, 141; hostility towards, 26; illegal, 9–10, 14, 16–18; importance of Chinese wives to, 27–28; murders of, 20; niche occupations, 21, 26, 28, 33, 49, 113; number of, 1882–1920, 14; outsider status/backlash against, 18–19, 26–28, 31, 41; prohibition against buying property, 26; relationship with African Americans, 27, 33–34; return to China, 141; threat of deportation, 22, 50–51, 134. See also smugglers, human traffickers
“The Chinese Leak” (Ralph), 18
Choctaw Nation, 23
Chou-hsin, 60–61
citizenship: exclusion of Asians from, 19–20, 57; extension to children of immigrants, 88–8
9; and the Fourteenth Amendment, 84–86
Clarksdale, Mississippi, 116–17, 118. See also Brewer, Earl
Clarksdale Register, 79–80, 93, 124
coaching papers, 50–51
Coahoma County, Mississippi: Lusk family in, 95; meeting to identify Coleman’s killers, 122; women of, activism following Coleman’s lynching, 120–21
Cobb, James, 32
coerced confession, 118–19, 121–22, 127–28
Coleman, Lindsey, 118–122
Collins, Ross A., 76
Colonial Inn, Rosedale, Mississippi, 3
“colored”: as classification, 5, 62, 103, 105, 162n77; use of term, xiii. See also African Americans
compulsory-education law, 88–89. See also public education
convict leasing: Brewer’s crusade against, 73, 75–76, 164n93; legality of, 76; in the Mississippi Delta, 32, 35–36, 72, 74
Cook, William Henry, 101–2
Coolidge, Calvin, 58
cotton production: the deflation of 1920, 1, 79; Delta and Pine Land Company, 53–54; external forces affecting, 35; Gibson Cotton Gin, 34–35; gins, 34, 63; low pay, use of child labor, 37–38; plantation society/planters, 35, 53–54; price inflation, World War I, 46; process, 23, 39; Richardson family interests, 35; Scott Plantation cotton farm, 53–54; state farms, 77; and theft of state-produced cotton, 164n93. See also convict leasing; levee system
Cowan, Edgar A., 85–86
Crisis (magazine), 44
Crowder, Enoch, 45
Dabney, Bartlett, 46
Dabney, Cammie, 46–47
Dabney, William, 46
Daniels, Roger, 20, 24
Davenport, Charles, 56
Delta and Pine Land Company, 53–54
demurrer, filing of in Lum case, 99, 103
Detroit, as immigrant entry point, 9–10, 12, 17
Dollard, John, 114
education, public. See public schools
Elaine, Arkansas, 142
Ellis, Hick, 118–19
Ellis Island, 56
Emergency Quota Act of 1921, 58
Ethridge, George Hamilton, 101–2, 106
Ethridge, Mark, 102
Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, 56
eugenics research, 21, 56
Fifth Amendment, 134
Fisher, John, 118–19
Flowers, James Nathaniel: Brewer’s handing of Lum appeal to, 124; brief in Gong Lum v. Rice, 129–131, 133–34; legal career, inexperience as a trial lawyer, 122, 124, 129; opposition to lynching, 122–23; personality, 129; withdrawal from Lum case, 135–36. See also Gong Lum v. Rice
Forrest, Nathan Bedford, 25, 102
Fourteenth Amendment: as basis for Lum case, 84, 88, 104–5; Brandeis’s contempt for, 133–34; and Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 143–44; citizenship clause, 86; history and ratification, 84, 86
Frank, Leo, 20
Frankfurter, Felix, 134
Franklin, E. R., 44
Franklin, John Hope, 144–45
Friar’s Point, Mississippi, 71–72, 74, 94–98
Gaddy, Linda, 83
Gam Saan (“Gold Mountain,” America), 11–12, 14, 26, 140
Gee, Henry, 148
George, Walter, 58
Gervin, Al, 1–2
Gibson Cotton Gin, 34
Glass, S. W., 121–22, 124–25
Gong Lum v. Rice: brief for, 128–131, 133–34; appointment of J. K. Young as representative, 135–36; decision and opinion, 137–39; long-term impacts, 140–42; placement on Supreme Court docket, 135–36. See also Brewer, Earl; Flowers, James Nathaniel; Rice v. Gong Lum
Graham, James (Marquess of Montrose), 90–91
Great Migration, 31, 43–44, 108–9, 111–12, 114. See also African Americans
Green, Charlie, 53
Greene, W. B., 15–16
Greenville, Mississippi, classification of Chinese as nonwhite, 162n77
Greenwood, Mississippi, 44–45
Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad, 123, 136
Gunnison, Mississippi, 47
Hang Toy Wong. See Lum, Katherine Wong
Harper’s Magazine, 18
Harris, Isham Green, 24–25
Harrison, Pat, 69
Hemingway’s Code, Mississippi, 121, 127
Hoar, George Frisbie, 19
Hobbs, Albert, 118–19
Holden, John Burt, 101
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 133
hone aun (red egg ceremony), 48–49
Hoover, David, 15
House Committee on Immigration and Naturalization, 56
Howard, Jacob, 85
Illinois Central Railroad, 72
Immigration Act of 1924, 56–59
immigration officials/agents, 15–16, 18
immigration quotas, 19, 56–59, 88. See also Chinese immigrants
industrialization: and expansion of public education, 38; in the Mississippi Delta, 36–38. See also Great Migration
Italian immigrants, 20, 31–32, 58
Jackson, Andrew, 23
Jackson, Michigan, Lum family in, 108–14
Jackson Clarion, warnings about integrated school system, 98
Jacobs, Charles, 90
Jeritt, Lottie, 53
Jewish immigrants, 20
Johnson, Albert, 56, 59
Johnson, Detective, 77
Johnson, Lyman, 144
Johnson-Reed Immigration Act, 88, 117. See also immigration quotas; Ku Klux Klan (KKK)
joint congressional committee on Reconstruction, 84
Jones, Marshall (Jones v. State), 127
Knox, Rush, 100
Ku Klux Klan (KKK): “Making of a Klansman” speech, 116–17; power and influence, 88, 97–98; and state-sponsored segregation, 60, 102, 126. See also white supremacy
Laughlin, Harry, 56
Lee, Erika, 19
Lehon, Dan, 77
Leonard, Raeford, 118–19
levee system, 3, 28–29, 39–40, 71–72, 74, 76, 142–43. See also convict leasing; Mississippi Delta
Lincoln, Abraham, 96
Little, Wilbur, 45
Lobdell, John, 3
Loewen, James, 33
lo fan (white man), 26
Los Angeles Times, on Gong Lum v. Rice ruling, 138–39
Lucker, Henry, 25
Lum, Berda: birth and naming, 30; class photo, 55; desire to travel, 108–9; help in the store, 54; life after high school, 147–48; life in Jackson, 113–14; photograph showing, ii; pride in heritage, 4–5, 50; rebellious nature, 4, 113–14; on train to Chicago, 111
Lum, Gow: Berda’s memories of, 108; laundry in Jackson, 51, 113–14; reunion with brother’s family, 49; stories about life in China, 49–50; threat of deportation, 50; travel to America, 11; treatment of Lum children, 113
Lum, Hamilton Biscoe (Biscoe), 48–49, 111, 147–48
Lum, Jeu Gong: arrival and settlement in Mississippi, 21–22, 26; arrival in Chicago, 21; death, 148; determination to educate children, 59–60; disinterest in Christianity, 42; efforts to blend in, 26; life in Houston, 148; life in Wabash, 140; loan from Sillers, 48; marriage, 28; physical appearance, 68; travel from China to Canada, 11–14
Lum, Katherine Wong: Americanization, 29; Christian faith, 42; death, 148; determination to educate children in white schools, 59–60, 62, 142; health, 51; life in Houston, 147–48; life in Wabash, 140; marriage, 28; physical appearance, ii, 68; pregnancies/children, 30–31, 42; response to Mississippi Supreme Court decision, 108–9, 141; return of children to the South, 115; revelations about, 114, 171n143; Rice v. Gong Lum lawsuit, 108
Lum, Lee: Berda’s memories of, 108; fluency in English, 49; move to Benoit with father, 49
Lum, Martha: academic success, 4; character of, Brewer’s focus on, 87; class photo, 55; early education in Benoit, 38–39; help in the store, 54; images of the North, 108; life after high school, 147–48; life in Jackson, Michigan, 113–14; longing for the South, 114–15; marriage and family in Houston, 148; na
ming, 31; ordering of, to return to Rosedale Consolidated, 99–100; physical appearance, ii, 2; rights to education as Mississippian, 89; schooling in Benoit, 40; sense of loneliness, isolation, 41; and the story of Madame Delphine and Olive, 110; studiousness, 41, 114; on train to Chicago, 110–11
Lum Dock Gong. See Lum, Jeu Gong
Lum family: boarders with, 46; clientele, 3; decision to challenge school board decision, 6, 61–63; move to Rosedale, 47, 53; move to Wabash, Arkansas, 140; origin of Lum name, 60–61; preparations for first day of school, 2, 59; move to Rosedale, 51–52. See also Gong Lum v. Rice; Rice v. Gong Lum
Lum family grocery businesses: fluctuating revenues, 43, 46; in Gunnison, 28–29; in Houston, 148; impact of growing black middle class on, 46; location, 2; in Rosedale, 34, 51–53; Sunday shoppers, 34; in Wabash, 142, 147; yearly economic cycle, 38–39
Lum sisters: expulsion from Rosedale Consolidated, 5, 59; interdependency, 4; parent’s ambitions for, 41; treatment by relatives in Jackson, 113–15; participation in family business, 34, 38, 41, 147–48
lynching, 120–23. See also Ku Klux Klan (KKK); white supremacy
“Making of a Klansman” speech (Campbell), 116–17
Marshall, Thurgood, 144
Martin, Edwin, 30
Martin, Perry, 3
McGowen, Henry, 4, 90, 93
McGowen, James, 101
Memphis Chinese Labor Convention, 24–25
Memphis Daily Appeal, 24
Mexico, Chinese immigration to, 24
Middle Passage, 24
Midway, Mississippi, 70–71
migrant workers, 13, 54. See also sharecroppers, black
mill towns, 37
Mississippi: compulsory-education law, 89; 1890 Constitution, Section 207, 99, 104; Eleventh District Court, 94; public education system, 168n122
Mississippi Delta: Alcorn family, 94–95; Chinese community, 22, 24–28, 33, 141; continuing segregation in, xi; deflation of 1920, 79; growth of public education, 38; levee system, 3, 28–29, 39–40, 71–72, 74, 76, 142–43; mills/company towns, 37; need for cheap labor, 23–25; power of land owners, 22, 31; railroad and industrialization, 36–38; resistance to social change, 45–46, 59–60; white settlement, 23; yellow fever, 98–99. See also convict leasing; Ku Klux Klan (KKK); levee system; plantation society/planters; segregation; yeoman farmers; white supremacy
Mississippi Mills, 35
Mississippi Supreme Court, 100–101, 106–7. See also Rice v. Gong Lum
“Mongolian”: classification of Chinese as, 99, 103, 105, 162n77; use of term, xiii. See also Chinese immigrants