Philip of Spain
Page 51
68. In the Prado, and in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
69. Gachard, Don Carlos, p.72.
70. Ibid., p.76.
71. García Ballester, p. 178.
72. ‘Juan de Padilla, the tyrant’, was his view in 1591 of the famous Comunero leader: Cabrera de Córdoba, IV, 504.
73. Paris, p.551.
74. Cabié, p.78.
75. Ibid., p.171.
76. Cf. Gómez-Centurión, pp. 25–9, 146–7.
77. Strada, I, 251.
78. The best account of the activities of Villavicencio is in Lagomarsino, pp.42–57.
79. Ibid., p.39 and later, is the best guide to del Canto.
80. Report by L'Aubespine, 26 Sept. 1560, in Paris, p.560.
81. Of 180 orders issued in Brussels in 1563–5, none was signed by Philip: Schepper, p. 187.
82. Danvila y Collado, II, 289.
83. King to count of Luna, 25 Apr. 1563, AGS:E leg.141 f.157.
84. The first stone (as distinct from the foundation stone) had been laid on St George's Day, 23 April.
85. To count of Luna, 25 Apr. 1563, AGS:E leg.141 f.157.
86. Courteville, cited Gachard, Don Carlos, p.91.
87. In November 1563. Cited in Carrasco, p. 142. Events in Aragon are exaggerated by Rodríguez Salgado, p.288, as a rebellion.
88. Gachard, Don Carlos, p.94.
89. Parker, Dutch Revolt, p.54, suggests that Alba's temporary absence from court facilitated Granvelle's removal. In fact, the king was in constant touch with Alba, as the correspondence in AGS:E leg. 143 shows.
90. Lagomarsino, p.70.
91. Alba to king, 21 Oct. 1563, AGS:E leg.143 f.3.
92. Cf. Lagomarsino, p.89.
93. Report by Soranzo, cited Gachard, Don Carlos, p.97.
94. Venetian ambassador Soranzo, cited ibid., p.99.
95. Perot de Vilanova, ‘Memòries’, cited in Kamen, Phoenix, p.44.
96. See also Gachard, Don Carlos, pp.105–13.
97. Maximilian became emperor shortly after in 1564, on the death of his father (Philip II's uncle) Ferdinand on 25 July.
98. Mayer-Löwenschwerdt, p.11.
99. Dietari de l'Antich Conseil Barceloní, V, Barcelona 1896, p.27.
100. Cabié, pp.77, 79.
101. HHSA Spanien, Varia, karton 2, n, f.13, report of 1564.
102. The best account of Egmont's visit, and the problems involved, is in Lagomarsino, pp.95–126.
103. Quoted in ibid., p. 104.
104. Philip's draft notes and Pérez's draft and comments are in AGS:E leg.527 f.5.
105. After the comment about ‘one o'clock’ he wrote another six sides, some 1,400 words more: ibid.
106. Ibid. leg.146 f.145.
107. HHSA Spanien, Varia, karton 2, p, f.4.
108. Parker's picture of the king's ‘duping of Egmont’ (Parker, Philip II, pp.69–72) is over-dramatised. It was not Philip's intention to ‘dupe’ anybody.
109. I follow the translation given by Lagomarsino, p. 114.
110. AGS:E leg.527 f.14, ‘Puntos que resultan de las cosas de Flandes’.
111. Pérez to Armenteros, secretary of Margaret of Parma, 30 June 1565, cited Gachard, Correspondance, I, 358.
112. Evidence for the committee comes exclusively from the verbal testimony given by one of its members to the Jesuit historian Strada: Strada, I, 315.
113. ‘Advis des evesques docteurs sur le fait de la religion’, AGS:E leg.527 f.1.
114. Cabié, p.357.
115. Manrique de Lara to king, 18 May 1565, AGS:E leg. 145 f.196.
116. The route was through Soria, Pamplona and San Sebastian. Pamplona was threatened by plague in these weeks, but could not be avoided.
117. Alba and Manrique to Philip, 15 and 21 June 1565, AGS:E/K leg.1504 ff.15, 17.
118. Alba and Manrique to Philip, 21 and 29 June 1565, ibid. ff.22, 36.
119. AE:CP,MD vol.235 ff.216–19.
120. Yates, p.59.
121. HHSA Spanien, Varia, p, f.25.
122. Álava to Philip, 8 July 1565, AGS:E leg.1504 f.50.
123. Order to council of State, Apr. 1553, ibid. leg.98 f.156. The importance of this order needs emphasising. Most historians present an inexplicable and untrue image of a king opposed to the decrees of Trent.
124. L'Aubespine to François II, 16 Sept. 1560, in Paris, p.551.
125. Martín de Córdoba, bishop of Tortosa, to marquis of Pescara, Trent, 26 May 1562, CODOIN, IX, 217.
126. King to Luna, 12 May 1563, ibid., XCVIII, 438.
127. King to Luna, Aug. 1563, ibid., 482.
128. Philip to Álava, 2 Aug. 1564, AGS:E/K 1502 f.14 bis.
129. Álava to Philip, 9 Aug. 1564, ibid. f.15.
130. A brief survey in Kamen, Phoenix, pp.61–4.
131. For the actual success or otherwise of the reform movement in Spain, see ibid., passim; and Sara Nalle, God in La Mancha, Baltimore 1992.
132. Changes he proposed for the form of the mass in 1575 occupy four sides of paper: IVDJ, 53, carpeta 7, f.51.
133. Comment on letter of Álava to king, 18 Jan. 1565, AGS:E/K 1503 f.20.
134. Nuns, in 1565: ibid. f.43; books, ibid. ff.22, 37.
135. Quadra to king, London, 11 Oct. 1561, AE:CP,MD vol.234 f.105.
136. Guzmán de Silva to king, London, 26 Apr. 1565, CODOIN, XXVI, 540.
137. Del Canto's detailed memorandum of 1563, in AGS:CJH leg.55 f.174, gives a good sketch of Spanish heretics in Europe.
138. Braudel, II, 1007–12; Thompson, War and Government, chaps 1, 6.
139. Cited Braudel, II, 1000.
140. Cf. ibid., 1012.
141. Cf. Fourquevaux to Charles IX, 21 Nov. 1565: ‘la conjuration des Morisques dont le bruict a esté et est encores grand en ce pais’, Douais, Vol.I, p. 12.
142. The background to this is studied in Lagomarsino, pp. 136–47.
143. A full report on the verdicts, in HHSA, Spanien, Varia, karton 2, r, f.19.
5. Towards Total War 1566–1572
1. King to Francés de Álava, 27 Nov. 1567, in Rodríguez and Rodríguez, doc.70.
2. Filosofia vulgar, Barcelona 1958–9 edn, I, 55.
3. Thompson, War and Government, chap.4.
4. Castillo de Bobadilla, II, 571, 579.
5. Tiepolo in 1563, Alberi, ser.I, vol.V, 17.
6. Parker, Army of Flanders, chap.1.
7. Thompson, War and Government, p.17.
8. AGS:E leg.154 f.106.
9. Danvila y Collado, II, 306.
10. Douais, xvi–xxi, 69–80.
11. Philip to Francés de Álava, 7 Apr.1566, AGS:E/K 1505 f.101.
12. Douais, I, 72.
13. AGS:E leg.148 f.50. The armaments included 10,500 cannonballs and 403 barrels of gunpowder.
14. Weiss, IX, 503, cited Lagomarsino, p.133.
15. AGS:E leg.146, no.77.
16. Lagomarsino, pp.174–82.
17. Gachard, Correspondance, I, clxxvi.
18. King to Francés de Álava, Madrid, 22 Dec. 1565: in Rodríguez and Rodríguez, p.31.
19. For some Spanish views, see Kamen, ‘Toleration’, in Crisis and Change.
20. Douais, I, 68.
21. King to Francés de Álava, 27 Nov. 1567, in Rodríguez and Rodríguez, doc.70.
22. Fourquevaux to Charles IX, 5 May 1566, Douais, I, 86.
23. HHSA Spanien, Varia, karton 2, r, f.22.
24. Serrano, II, xxxvi.
25. Lagomarsino, pp.240–1.
26. Cited Gachard, Don Carlos, p.256 n.2.
27. Del Canto to king, 4 July 1566, Brussels, AGS:E leg.529 ff.61–2.
28. Serrano, II, xxxix.
29. BNM MS.8246 f.176.
30. Letters in AGS:E leg.530.
31. Parker, Dutch Revolt, p.78.
32. Gachard, Don Carlos, p.264 n.2.
33. ‘Lo que contiene el despacho que se embia a Flandes’, AGS:E leg.530.
34. Cabrera, I, 487.
35. Douais, III, 18.
36. He looked ‘plus beau, plus frais et plus jeune’ than ever: ibid., 23. However, the next day he was unwell again.
37. Cabrera, I, 490.
38. Fourquevaux to Charles IX, 9 Dec. 1566, Douais, I, 150.
39. ‘Paresciendole que no se puede venir a matar 200,000 personas’: Margaret to king, 18 Aug. 1566, AGS:E leg.530.
40. Parker, Army of Flanders, chaps 2–3.
41. Lagomarsino, p.262.
42. Cf. ibid., p.263.
43. King to Requesens, 26, Nov. 1566, in Serrano, I, 399.
44. Parker, Dutch Revolt, p.85, refers to the sending of the army as a ‘mysterious’ decision. One should more probably term it a controversial decision.
45. Douais, 1,173.
46. Fourquevaux to king of France, 13 Feb. 1567, in Douais, I, 179; judgment by the Audiencia of Mexico, AGS:E lib.2018 ff.213–16; reports in HHSA Spanien, Varia, karton 2, s, f.34, 37. Cortés, who accompanied Philip to England and the Netherlands, had recently returned to Mexico from Spain (1562). He was fined but pardoned, and died in 1589.
47. They acted with extreme rigour, and had their commissions revoked. A new team of judges was sent out in 1568. See Manuel Orozco y Berra, Conjuración del Marqués del Valle, 1565–1568, Mexico 1853.
48. Fourquevaux to Charles IX, 24 Aug. 1567, Douais, I, 255.
49. Philip to Alba, 11 Oct., 1567, CODOIN, LXXV, 15.
50. Philip to Alba, 16 Oct. 1567, AGS:E leg.537 ff.3–6.
51. Douais, I, 272.
52. CODOIN, LXXV, 20.
53. HHSA Spanien, Varia, karton 2, s, f.47.
54. King to Francés de Álava, Madrid, 19 Feb. 1568, in Rodríguez and Rodríguez, doc.88.
55. Alba to Requesens, and to king, 14 Sept. 1567, in Alba, I, 673, 675.
56. CODOIN, XXXVII, 42–70.
57. King to Alba, 19 Feb. 1568, CODOIN, XXXVII, 156.
58. King to Requesens, 22 Oct. 1567, Gachard, Correspondance, I, 581–96.
59. Gachard, Don Carlos, p.135.
60. Fourquevaux to king, 12 Sept. 1567, in Douais, I, 266.
61. What follows is summarised from Gachard, Don Carlos, esp. pp.335–62.
62. Cited ibid., p.393.
63. Ibid., pp.437–9.
64. Cabrera, I, 562.
65. Cited Gachard, Don Carlos, p.407.
66. Douais, III, 92.
67. King to Francés de Álava, 19 Mar. 1568, in Rodríguez and Rodríguez, doc.93.
68. Cabrera, I, 562.
69. Reports by Tisnacq and Hopperus, in Gachard, Don Carlos, p.406; French ambassador, ibid., p.407 n.1.
70. Fourquevaux to king, 5 Feb. 1568, in Douais, I, 321 and ff.
71. Gachard, Don Carlos, p.393. The papers of the inquiry, lodged in Simancas, subsequently disappeared.
72. Cited Gachard, Don Carlos, p.476 n.4.
73. King to Francés de Álava, 3 Oct. 1568, in Rodríguez and Rodríguez, doc.124.
74. Alba to king, Brussels, 6 Jan. 1568, Gachard, Correspondance, II, 3.
75. The sketch of Orange in Motley, pp.119–26, is still the most evocative.
76. Ibid., pp.153–63.
77. AGS:E leg.537 f.26.
78. Strada, II, 686.
79. Alba to Chantonnay, Brussels, 14 Sept. 1567, in Alba, I, 673.
80. Strada, II, 686.
81. King to Alba, Madrid, 18 July 1568, CODOIN, XXXVII, 310.
82. Pedro Cornejo, Sumario de las Guerras Civiles y causas de la Rebellion de Flandes, Leon 1577, p. 125.
83. Ibid., p.114.
84. King to Francés de Álava, 14 Oct. in Rodríguez and Rodríguez, doc.126.
85. Philip to Alba, 18 Feb. 1569, CODOIN, XXXVII, 552.
86. Philip's envoy D. Luis Venegas, 11 Oct. 1568, ibid., CIII, 4.
87. King to Chantonnay, 11 May 1566, ibid., CI, 137.
88. King to Chantonnay, 20 May 1568, ibid., 422.
89. Ibid., XXXVII, 358.
90. On Charles, see F. Edelmayer, ‘Einheit der Casa de Austria? Philipp II und Karl von Innerösterreich’, in Katholische Reform und Gegenreformation in Innerösterreich 1564–1628, Vienna 1994.
91. Douais, III, x. Guise spent Christmas at Montserrat before coming to Madrid.
92. King to Francés de Álava, 2 Mar. 1569, in Rodríguez and Rodríguez, doc. 162. Marguerite, who subsequently married Henry of Navarre, shared with the other children of Catherine de’ Medici traits of mental instability of which Philip may have been aware.
93. To Granvelle, Mar. 1569, in L. Pérez Bueno, ‘Del casamiento de Felipe II con su sobrina Ana de Austria’, Hispania, 7 (1947), pp.372–416.
94. There was also a private version of the reply, more outspoken and meant for the emperor alone: Gachard, Correspondance, II, 819.
95. ‘Respuesta del Rey Católico, 20 Jan. 1569, CODOIN, CIII, 88–107.
96. ‘La réplica que hizo el Archiduque Carlos’, 22 Jan. 1569, ibid., 108–19.
97. King to Alba, Madrid, 12 Jan. 1569, AGS:E leg.15702 f.112.
98. Alonso del Canto to king, Brussels, 22 Apr. 1566, ibid. leg.529 f.56.
99. The accusations, and Vandenesse's statements, are in ibid. leg.542 f.122; and leg.543 f.2. He was son of the Vandenesse who chronicled the travels of the emperor.
100. Ibid. leg. 152 f.162.
101. Ibid. leg.543 ff.67–9.
102. Full details of his last hours ibid. ff.70, 87–8.
103. Gachard, Correspondance, II, 161, 169.
104. ‘The terrible secret of Montigny's death was one Philip II took with him to the tomb’: Marañón (English edn, p.55). A recent scholar also states: ‘He believed that his sovereignty gave him the right to execute private and secret justice … This belief led him to acts of savagery and arbitrary despotism’: Lynch, p.259. Philip never had any such beliefs.
105. García Ballester, pp.109–11.
106. Ladrada to king, Madrid, 29 Sept. 1572, BL Add.28354 f.484. The doctor, La Fuente, is described as having ‘not a drop of “pure” blood’.
107. García Ballester, p.54.
108. Cited in E. Salvador, Felipe II y los moriscos valencianos, Valladolid 1987, p.23.
109. AGS:E leg.148 f.113.
110. Zúñiga to king, 14 Oct. 1569, in Serrano, III, 165.
111. Cf. Braudel, II, 1068.
112. President of Chancery of Granada to king, 28 July 1570, BZ 158 f.3.
113. King to Alba, Madrid, 16 Dec. 1569, CODOIN, XXXVIII, 257.
114. Danvila y Collado, II, 313.
115. Mal Lara, p.68. The author of this description died prematurely six months after penning it.
116. In Jan. 1570, for example, the army received 414 cases of armament from Milan: AGS:E leg.152 f.76. In 1572 it ordered 250 field-guns: ibid. leg.154 f.106.
117. Don Juan's secretary, Juan de Soto, to Escobedo, Granada 20 Nov. 1570, AGS:E leg.152 f.22.
118. Requesens to Zúñiga, 28 Oct. 1570, IVDJ, 70 f.72. Cf. the reaction of another general to an atrocity in our times. General Curtis LaMay was quoted in the International Herald Tribune (The Hague, 9 Mar. 1995) as saying: ‘We scorched and boiled and baked to death more people in Tokyo on that night [9 Mar. 1945] than went up in vapour at Hiroshima and Nagasaki combined.’
119. Fourquevaux to king, 8 May 1568, in Douais, I, 354.
120. Don Juan to Ruy Gómez, 5 Nov. 1570, CODOIN, XXXVIII, 156.
121. King to Juan Vázquez, San Lorenzo, 22 Apr. 1579, BL Add.28357 f.302.
122. Cabrera, III, 610.
123. Quiroga to Vázquez, 25 Aug. 1582, BZ 135 f.20.
124. Report of committee, 17 June 1587, BL Eg. 1511 ff. 106–13.
125. Ibid. ff.183–5.
126. Cabié, pp.122, 171.
127. Requesens to Zúñiga, 28 Jan. 1573, IVDJ, 67 f.1.
128. Philip to Alba, Madrid, 18 Feb. 1569, AGS:E leg.542.
129. CODOIN, XXXVIII, 109.
130. Cited Gómez-Centurión, p.57.
131. CSPV, VIII, 296. In private, Alba confessed in 1573 to a ‘personal dislike’ of the
English: Alba, I, xix.
132. Teulet, V, 57.
133. Alba to king, Brussels, 7 May 1571, ‘Your Majesty had no interest in this’, ibid., 74.
134. ‘Lo que se platicó en Consejo’, 7 July 1571, AGS:E leg.823 ff. 150–8. The council did not, contrary to what Parker, Philip II, p. 118, says, approve the plot. Merriman also errs. He states, IV, 293: ‘On Saturday, July 7, 1571, there was held in Madrid a famous meeting of the Consejo, in which it was decided that Elizabeth must be assassinated.’
135. BNM MS.2751 f.479.
136. Gachard, Carlos V, pp. 139–40.
137. Jean Baptiste de Tassis, cited in Stirling-Maxwell, II, 359.
138. Cf. Marañón, I, 216–17.
139. HHSA, Spanien, Varia, karton 2, p, f.19.
140. BZ 186 ff.42–4.
141. See his comments in 1575 in CODOIN, XXXVIII, 284.
142. E.g. the letters in ibid., XXVIII.
143. This is the correct form of her name, and she always signed it this way. The Spanish form ‘Ana’ was not, to my knowledge, used by her. See her letters in HHSA, Spanien, Hofkorrespondenz, karton 2, mappe 12 ff.1, 5.
144. Lambert Wyts, ‘Viaje’, in García Mercadal, I, 1173.
145. BL Add.28354 ff.63, 80.
146. ‘Her face is small and she is not very tall,’ reported a Venetian envoy: Gachard, Carlos V, p.119.
147. Philip to count of Monteagudo, 16 Nov. 1570, CODOIN, CX, 113.
148. Gachard, Carlos V, p.119.
149. Cabrera, II, 122.
150. See J. L. Phelan, The Hispanization of the Philippines, Madison 1959, pp-8–10.
151. A contemporary French estimate: Braudel, II, 1037.
152. Gachard, Carlos V, p.118. Philip's alleged impassivity on hearing the news is part of the curious mythology fabricated around him.
153. Cabrera, II, 121.
154. Stirling-Maxwell, I, 450.
155. Memorias de fray Juan de San Gerónimo, in CODOIN, VII, 82.
156. Stirling-Maxwell, I, 461.
157. Braudel, II, 1128.
158. More to the point, Alençon was of dwarfish height, slightly hunch-backed, and his face was severely marked by smallpox.
159. Cited J. W. Thompson, The Wars of Religion in France 1559–1576, New York 1910, p.443 n.2.
160. Ibid., p.447.
161. BL Add.28355 f.22.
162. Despatches of Zúñiga to king in AGS:E/K 1529 ff.20, 21, 29.
163. Philip to Zúñiga, 18 Sept. 1572, ibid. f.53b.
164. Groen van Prinsterer, p.125.
165. A more recent example: the removal of the leaders of the Indonesian Communist party in 1965 gave great satisfaction to the west. Little consideration was given to the fact that some 500,000 other Indonesians died with them.